Critical Analysis of the Research Designs in a Peer- Reviewed Article Essay

Critical Analysis of the Research Designs in a Peer- Reviewed Article - Essay Example It is an organized investigation into a subject in order to discover facts, to establish or revise theory, or to develop an action based on facts discovered (Encarta Dictionary, 2002, par. 1). The article entitled â€Å"Identifying the best research design to fit the question. Part 2: qualitative designs† written by Jenny Ploeg (1999) exemplifies research using the qualitative method identified to be crucial in providing answers to relevant nursing concerns. The article was chosen to be the appropriate example of a peer-reviewed discourse which explains a research design, specifically the qualitative method, as a means of furthering trends on nursing applications, a significant area of health science. The main problem statement or hypothesis of the discourse was stated as proffering the value of qualitative research in pinpointing crucial solutions to nursing concerns. Ploeg (1999) averred that â€Å"qualitative research methods have become increasingly important as ways of developing nursing knowledge for evidence-based nursing practice. This editorial provides an overview of qualitative research, describes 3 common types of qualitative research, and gives examples of their use in nursing† (par. 1). The article provided readers with the opportunity to be enlightened on the significance of the qualitative method as the research design most appropriate in seeking solutions to nursing dilemmas. By expounding on the common types of qualitative research (phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory), one is able to appreciate the kind of information provided by these types of research with the objective of understanding the process towards arriving at a particular result or outcome. Likewise, awareness of the differentiating factors or elements of each research type would enable practitioners to use the accurate kind of qualitative research for the identified purpose. Ploeg (1999) described the qualitative

Six Stroke Ic Engine Essay Example for Free

Six Stroke Ic Engine Essay 1. INTRODUCTION A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression. Diesel engines have wide range of utilization for automobiles, locomotives marines and co-generation systems. However, large problem is still related to undesirable emission. The six-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine based on the four-stroke engine but with additional complexity to make it more efficient and reduce emissions. Two different types of six-stroke engine have been developed: In the first approach, the engine captures the heat lost from the four-stroke Otto cycle or Diesel cycle and uses it to power an additional power and exhaust stroke of the piston in the same cylinder. Designs use either steam or air as the working fluid for the additional power stroke. The pistons in this type of six-stroke engine go up and down three times for each injection of fuel. There are two power strokes: one with fuel, the other with steam or air. The currently notable designs in this class are the Crower Six-stroke engine invented by Bruce Crower of the U.S. ; the Bajulaz engine by the Bajulaz S.A. company of Switzerland; and the Velozeta Six-stroke engine built by the College of Engineering, at Trivandrum in India. The second approach to the six-stroke engine uses a second opposed piston in each cylinder that moves at half the cyclical rate of the main piston, thus giving six piston movements per cycle. Functionally, the second piston replaces the valve mechanism of a conventional engine but also increases the compression ratio. The currently notable designs in this class include two designs developed independently: the Beare Head engine, invented by Australian Malcolm Beare, and the German Charge pump, invented by Helmut Kottmann. To improve exhaust emissions from diesel engines, a new concept of Six Stroke Engine has been proposed. This engine has a second compression and combustion processes before exhaust process. [pic] Fig 1 Diesel engine sectional view Fig 2 Ideal Otto cycle [pic] Fig 3 Pressure- Volume diagrams for dual cycle As the fuel in one cycle was divided into two combustion processes and the EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) effect appeared in the second combustion process, the decreased maximum cylinder temperature reduced Nitrous Oxide (NO) concentration in the exhaust gas. It was further confirmed that soot formed in the first combustion process was oxidized in the second combustion process .Therefore, a six stroke diesel engine has significant possibilities to improve combustion process because of its more controllable factors relative to a conventional four-stroke engine. Since the cylinder temperature before the second combustion process is high because of an increased temperature in the first combustion process, ignition delay in the second combustion process should be shortened. In addition, typically less desirable low cetane number fuels might also be suitable for use in the second combustion process, because the long ignition delays of these fuels might be improved by increased cylinder temperatures from the first combustion process. Methanol was chosen as the fuel of the second combustion. The cetane number of methanol is low and it shows low ignitability. However, since methanol will form an oxidizing radical (OH) during combustion, it has the potential to reduce the soot produced in the first combustion process. [pic] Fig 4 Comparison of 4 stroke and 6 stroke cycle 2. BAJULAZ SIX STROKE ENGINE The majority of the actual internal combustion engines, operating on different cycles have one common feature, combustion occurring in the cylinder after each compression, resulting in gas expansion that acts directly on the piston (work) and limited to 180 degrees of crankshaft angle. According to its mechanical design, the six-stroke engine with external and internal combustion and double flow is similar to the actual internal reciprocating combustion engine. However, it differentiates itself entirely, due to its thermodynamic cycle and a modified cylinder head with two supplementary chambers: Combustion, does not occur within the cylinder within the cylinder but in the supplementary combustion chamber, does not act immediately on the piston, and it’s duration is independent from the 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation that occurs during the expansion of the combustion gases (work). The combustion chamber is totally enclosed within the air-heating chamber. By heat exchange through the glowing combustion chamber walls, air pressure in the heating chamber increases and generate power for an a supplementary work stroke. Several advantages result from this, one very important being the increase in thermal efficiency. IN the contemporary internal combustion engine, the necessary cooling of the combustion chamber walls generates important calorific losses. 2.1 Analysis: Six-stroke engine is mainly due to the radical hybridization of two- and four-stroke technology. The six-stroke engine is supplemented with two chambers, which allow parallel function and results a full eight-event cycle: two four-event-each cycles, an external combustion cycle and an internal combustion cycle. In the internal combustion there is direct contact between air and the working fluid, whereas there is no direct contact between air and the working fluid in the external combustion process. Those events that affect the motion of the crankshaft are called dynamic events and those, which do not effect are called static events. [pic] Fig 5 Prototype of Six stroke engine internal view 1. Intake valve, 2.Heating chamber valve, 3.Combustion chamber valve,4. Exhaust valve, 5.Cylinder, 6.Combustion chamber, 7. Air heating chamber, 8.Wall of combustion chamber, 9.Fuel injector and 10.Heater plug. 2.1.1 Analysis of events [pic] Fig 6 Event 1: Pure air intake in the cylinder (dynamic event) 1. Intake valve. 2. Heating chamber valve 3. Combustion chamber valve. 4. Exhaust valve 5. Cylinder 6. Combustion chamber. 7. Air heating chamber. 8. Wall of combustion chamber. 9. Fuel injector. 10. Heater plug. [pic] Fig 7 Event 2: Pure air compression in the heating chamber. Event 3: Keeping pure air pressure in closed chamber where a maximum heat exchange occurs with the combustion chambers walls, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). [pic] Fig 8 Event 4: Expansion of the Super heat air in the cylinder work (dynamic Event). [pic] Fig 9 Event 5: Re-compressions of pure heated air in the combustion chamber (dynamic event). Events 6: fuel injection and combustion in closed combustion chamber, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). [pic] Fig 10 Events 7: Combustion gases expanding in the cylinder, work (dynamic event). [pic] Fig 11 Events 8: Combustion gases exhaust (dynamic event). [pic] Fig 12 Six-stroke engine cycle diagram: 2.1.2 External combustion cycle: (divided in 4 events): No direct contact between the air and the heating source. e1. (Event 1) Pure air intake in the cylinder (dynamic event). e2. (Event 2) Compression of pure air in the heating chamber (dynamic event). e3. (Event 3) Keeping pure air pressure in closed chamber where a maximum heat exchange occurs with the combustion chambers walls, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). e4. (Event 4) Expansion of the super heated air in the cylinder, work (dynamic event). 2.1.3 Internal combustion cycle: (divided in 4 events) Direct contact between the air and the heating source. I1. (Event 5) Re-compression of pure heated air in the combustion chamber (dynamic event) I2. (Event 6) Fuel injection and combustion in closed combustion chamber, without direct action on the crankshaft (static event). I3. (Event 7) Combustion gases expanding in the cylinder, work (dynamic event). I4. (Event 8) Combustion gases exhaust (dynamic event). 2.2 Constructional details: The sketches shows the cylinder head equipped with both chambers and four valves of which two are conventional (intake and exhaust). The two others are made of heavy-duty heat-resisting material. During the combustion and the air heating processes, the valves could open under the pressure within the chambers. To avoid this, a piston is installed on both valve shafts which compensate this pressure. Being a six-stroke cycle, the camshaft speed in one third of the crankshaft speed. The combustion chambers walls are glowing when the engine is running. Their small thickness allows heat exchange with the air-heating chamber, which is surrounding the combustion chamber. The air-heating chamber is isolated from the cylinder head to reduce thermal loss. Through heat transfer from the combustion chamber to the heating chamber, the work is distributed over two strokes, which results in less pressure on the piston and greater smoothness of operation. In addition, since the combustion chamber is isolated from the cylinder by its valves, the moving parts, especially the piston, are not subject to any excessive stress from the very high temperatures and pressures. They are also protected from explosive combustion or auto-ignition, which are observed on ignition of the air-fuel mixture in conventional gas or diesel engines. The combustion and air-heating chambers have different compression ratio. The compression ratio is high for the heating chamber, which operates on an external cycle and is supplied solely with pure air. On the other hand, the compression ratio is low for the combustion chamber because of effectively increased volume, which operates on internal combustion cycle. The combustion of all injected fuel is insured, first, by the supply of preheated pure air in the combustion chamber, then, by the glowing walls of the chamber, which acts as multiple spark plugs. In order to facilitate cold  starts, the combustion chamber is fitted with a heater plug (glow plug). In contrast to a diesel engine, which requires a heavy construction, this multi-fuel engine, which can also use diesel fuel, may be built in a much lighter fashion than that of a gas engine, especially in the case of all moving parts. Injection and combustion take place in the closed combustion chamber, therefore at a constant volume, over 360 degrees of crankshaft angle. This feature gives plenty of time for the fuel to burn ideally, and releases every potential calorie (first contribution to pollution reduction). The injection may be split up, with dual fuel using the SNDF system (Single Nozzle, Dual Fuel). The glowing walls of the combustion chamber will calcite the residues, which are deposited there during fuel combustion (second contribution to pollution reduction). As well as regulating the intake and exhaust strokes, the valves of the heating and the combustion chambers allow significantly additional adjustments for improving efficiency and reducing noise. 2.3 Factors Contributing To the Increased Thermal Efficiency, Reduced Fuel Consumption, and Pollutant Emission 1. The heat that is evacuated during the cooling of a conventional engine’s cylinder head is recovered in six-stroke engine by air-heating chamber surrounding the combustion chamber. 2. After intake, air is compressed in the heating chamber and heated through 720 degrees of crankshaft angle, 360 degrees of which in closed chamber (external combustion). 3. The transfer of heat from thin walls of the combustion chamber to the air heating chambers lowers the temperature, pressure of gases on expansion and exhaust (internal combustion). 4. Better combustion and expansion of gases that take place over 540 degrees of crankshaft rotation, 360 ° of which is in closed combustion chamber, and 180 ° for expansion. 5. Elimination of the exhaust gases crossing with fresh air on intake. In the six stroke-engines, intake takes place on the first stroke and exhaust on the fourth stroke. 6. Large reduction in cooling power. The water pump and fan outputs are reduced. Possibility to suppress the water cooler. 7. Less inertia due  to the lightness of the moving parts. 8. Better filling of the cylinders on the intake due to the lower temperature of the cylinder walls and the piston head. 9. The glowing combustion chamber allows the finest burning of any fuel and calcinate the residues. 10. Distribution of the work: two expansions (power strokes) over six strokes, or a third more than the in a four-stroke engine. Since the six-stroke engine has a third less intake and exhaust than a four stroke engine, the depression on the piston during intake and the back pressure during exhaust are reduced by a third. The gain in efficiency balances out the losses due to the passage of air through the combustion chamber and heating chamber valves, during compression of fresh and superheated air. Recovered in the six-stroke engine By the air-heating chamber surrounding the combustion. Friction losses, theoretically high er in the six-stroke engine, are balanced by a better distribution of pressure on the moving parts due to the work being spread over two strokes and the elimination of the direct combustion. 3. DUAL FUEL SIX STROKE ENGINE 3.1 Working The cycle of this engine consists of six strokes: 1. Intake stroke 2. First compression stroke 3. First combustion stroke 4. Second compression stroke 5. Second combustion stroke 6. Exhaust stroke [pic] Fig 13 Concept of a Six-stroke diesel engine 3.1.1 Intake or Suction stroke To start with the piston is at or very near to the T.D.C., the inlet valve is open and the exhaust valve is closed. A rotation is given to the crank by the energy from a flywheel or by a starter motor when the engine is  just being started. As the piston moves from top to bottom dead centre the rarefaction is formed inside the cylinder i.e. the pressure in the cylinder is reduced to a value below atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference causes the fresh air to rush in and fill the space vacated by the piston. The admission of air continues until the inlet valve closes at B.D.C. 3.1.2 First Compression stroke Both the valves are closed and the piston moves from bottom to top dead centre. The air is compressed up to compression ratio that depends upon type of engine. For diesel engines the compression ratio is 12-18 and pressure and temperature towards the end of compression are 35-40 kgf/cm2 and 600-700 0C 3.1.3 First combustion stroke This stroke includes combustion of first fuel (most probably diesel) and expansion of product of combustion. The combustion of the charge commences when the piston approaches T.D.C. Here the fuel in the form of fine spray is injected in the combustion space. The atomization of the fuel is accomplished by air supplied. The air entering the cylinder with fuel is so regulated that the pressure theoretically remains constant during burning process. In airless injection process, the fuel in finely atomized form is injected in combustion chamber. When fuel vapors raises to self ignition temperature, the combustion of accumulated oil commences and there is sudden rise in pressure at approximately constant volume. The combustion of fresh fuel injected into the cylinder continues and this ignition is due to high temperature developed in engine cylinder. However this latter combustion occurs at approximately constant pressure. Due to expansion of gases piston moves downwards. The reciprocating motion of piston is converted into rotary motion of crankshaft by connecting  rod and crank. During expansion the pressure drop is due to increase in volume of gases and absorption of heat by cylinder walls. 3.1.4 Second compression stroke Both the valves are closed and the piston moves from bottom to top dead centre. The combustion products from the first compression stroke are recompressed and utilized in the second combustion process before the exhaust stroke. In typical diesel engine combustion the combustion products still contains some oxygen. 3.1.5 Second combustion stroke This stroke includes combustion of second fuel having low cetane (Cetane number of fuel is defined as percent volume of cetane (C16H34) in a mixture of cetane and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces the same delay period or ignition lag as the fuel being tested under same operating conditions on same engine). The combustion of the charge commences when the piston approaches to TDC. The second fuel injected into recompressed burnt gas can be burnt in the second combustion process. In other words combustion process of the second fuel takes place in an internal full EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) of the first combustion. This second combustion process was the special feature of the proposed Six Stroke DI Diesel Engine. 3.1.6 Exhaust stroke The exhaust valve begins to open when the power stroke is about to complete. A pressure of 4-5 kgf/cm2 at this instant forces about 60% of burnt gases into the exhaust manifold at high speed. Much of the noise associated with automobile engine is due to high exhaust velocity. The remainder of burnt gases is cleared of the swept volume when the piston moves from TDC to BDC. During this stroke pressure inside the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric value. Some of the burnt gases are however  left in the clearance space. The exhaust valve closes shortly after TDC. The inlet valve opens slightly before the end of exhaust stroke and cylinder is ready to receive the fresh air for new cycle. Since from the beginning of the intake stroke the piston has made six strokes through the cylinder (Three up And Three down). In the same period crank shaft has made three revolutions. Thus for six stroke cycle engine there are two power strokes for every three revolutions of crank shaft. 3.2 Performance analysis 3.2.1 Modification over four stroke diesel engine This six-stroke diesel engine was made from a conventional four-stroke diesel engine with some modification. A sub-shaft was added to the engine, in order to drive a camshaft and injection pumps. The rotation speed of the sub-shaft was reduced to 1/3 of the rotation of an output shaft. To obtain similar valve timings between a four-stroke and a six-stroke diesel engine, the cam profile of the six-stroke diesel engine was modified. In order to separate the fuels, to control each of the injection timings and to control each injection flow rate in the first and the second combustion processes, the six-stroke diesel engine was equipped with two injection pumps and two injection nozzles. The injection pumps were of the same type as is used in the four-stroke diesel engine. The nozzle is located near the center of a piston cavity, and has four injection holes. For the six-stroke diesel engine, one extra nozzle was added on the cylinder head. This extra nozzle was of the same design as that of the four-stroke engine. [pic] Fig 14 Volume –Angle diagram for six stroke engine Diesel fuel for the first combustion process was injected through this extra nozzle, and methanol for the second combustion process was injected through the center nozzle. Here, we denoted the injection timing of the four  stroke diesel engine as Xi. The injection timings of the first and second combustion strokes for the six-stroke diesel engine are shown as Xi I and Xi II, respectively. Crank angle X was measured from the intake BDC. In the six-stroke engine, crank angle of the first combustion TDC is 180 degrees. The second combustion TDC is 540 degrees. Specifications of the test engines are shown in Table 1. The conventional four-stroke diesel engine that was chosen as the basis for these experiments was a single cylinder, air cooled engine with 82 mm bore and 78 mm stroke. The six-stroke engine has the same engine specifications except for the valve timings. However, the volumetric efficiency of the six-stroke engine showed no significant difference from that of the four-stroke engine. Characteristics of the six-stroke diesel engine were compared with the conventional four-stroke diesel engine. In this paper, the engine speed (Ne) was fixed at 2,000 rpm. Cylinder and line pressure indicators were equipped on the cylinder head. NO concentration was measured by a chemiluminescence’s NO meter, and soot emission was measured by a Bosch smoke meter. The physical and combustion properties of diesel fuel and methanol are shown in Table. 2. Since combustion heats of diesel fuel and methanol are different, injection flow rates of the first and the second combustion processes are defined by the amount of combustion heat. Here, the supplied combustion heat for the first combustion process is denoted by QI. The second combustion stroke is denoted by QII. The ratio of QII to Qt (Qt = QI+QII) supplied combustion heat per cycle) is defined as the heat allocation ratio ÃŽ ±H: ÃŽ ±H = QII = QII QI +QII Qt Table 1. Specifications of the test engine: Four stoke Six stroke Diesel Engine Diesel Engine Engine type DI, Single cylinder, Air cooled, OHV Bore x Stroke [mm] 82 x 78 Displacement [cc] 412 Top Clearance [mm] 0.9 Cavity Volume [cc] 16 Compression ratio 21 Intake Valve Open100 BTDC70 BTDC Intake valve Close1400 BTDC1450 BTDC Exhaust Valve Open1350 ATDC1400 ATDC Exhaust Valve Close120 ATDC30 ATDC Valve Overlap 220 100 Rated power 5.9 kW /3000rpm Base Engine - Table 2. Physical and combustion properties of diesel fuel and methanol: | |Diesel Fuel |Methanol | |Combustion heat [MJ/kg] |42.7 |19.9 | |Cetane number |40-55 |3.0 | |Density [kg/m2] |840 |793 | |Theoretical air-fuel ratio |14.6 |6.5 | 3.3 Performance of six stroke diesel engine 3.3.1 Comparison with four stroke diesel engine A four-stroke engine has one intake stroke for every two engine rotations. For the six-stroke engine, however, the intake stroke took place once for every three engine rotations. In order to keep the combustion heat per unit time constant, the combustion heat supplied to one six-stroke cycle should be 3 or 2 times larger than that of the four-stroke engine. There are many ways to compare performance between the four-stroke and six-stroke engines. For this paper, the authors have chosen to compare  thermal efficiency or SFC at same output power. If the thermal efficiency was the same in both engines, the same output power would be produced by the fuels of equivalent heats of combustion. Therefore, in order to make valid comparison, fuels supplied per unit time were controlled at the same value for both engines and engine speeds were kept constant. In this section, fuel supplied for the engines was only a diesel fuel. Performance of the six-stroke engine was compared with that of the four-stroke engine under various injection timings. Detailed conditions for comparison of the four-stroke and six-stroke engines are listed in Table. 3. The heat allocation ratio of the six-stroke engine was set at ÃŽ ±H = 0.5. Injection flow rate of fuel was Qt4 = 0.50 KJ/cycle for the four-stroke engine and Qt6 = 0.68 KJ/cycle for the six stroke engine. For six stroke engine, it meant that the amount of 0.34KJ was supplied at each combustion process. At the viewpoint of combustion heat, 0.75 KJ/cycle of heat should be supplied for the six stroke engine to make the equivalence heat condition. However diesel fuel of 0.68 KJ/cycle was supplied here because of difficulties associated with methanol injection. Injection timing of the four-stroke engine was changed from 160 degrees (200BTDC) to 180 degrees (TDC). For six -stroke engine, the injection timing of the first combustion process was fixed to 165 degrees (15 °BTDC) or 174 degrees (6 °BTDC), and the second injection timing was changed from 520 degrees (2000 BTDC) to 540 degrees (TDC). [pic] Fig 15 Valve timing diagram four stroke engine Table 3. Detailed conditions of comparison between the four stroke and six stroke diesel engines and performance of engine | |Four Stroke |Six Stroke | |Engine Parameters |Diesel Engine |Diesel Engine | |Engine Speed Ne [rpm] |2007 |2016 | |Supplied combustion heat per cycle | | | |Qt [KJ/cycle] |0.50 |0.68 | |Supplied combustion heat per unit time Ht [KJ/s] | | | | |8.36 |7.62 | |Intake air flow per cycle | | | |Ma [mg/cycle] |358.7 |371.4 | |Injection quantity per cycle | | | |Mf [mg/cycle] |11.8 |16 | | | | | |Excess air ratio ÃŽ » |2.40 |1.83 | |Intake air flow per unit time | | | |Ma [g/cycle] |6.00 |4.16 | |Injection quantity per unit time | | | |Mf [g/sec] |0.197 |0.179 | |Brake torque Tb [N-m] |15.52 |15.28 | |Brake power Lb [KW] |3.26 |3.24 | |BSFC. b [ g / KW-h] |217.9 |520.3 | |IMEP Pi [Kgf / cm2] |5.94 |4.37 | |Indicated torque Ti [N-m] |19.10 |18.71 | |Indicated power Li [KW] |4.01 |3.75 | |ISFC bi [g / KW-h ] |177.2 |163.3 | Indicated torque of the six-stroke engine is almost same level with that of the four-stroke engine under various injection timings. NO concentration in exhaust gas of the six-stroke engine was lower than that of the four-stroke engine. NO emissions from both engines were reduced by the retard of injection timing. The effect of retard in the second injection timing of the six-stroke engine was similar to that of the retard in the four-stroke engine. For the six-stroke engine, from the comparison between Xi I = 165 degrees (15 °BTDC) and Xi I = 174 degrees (6 °BTDC), it seemed that the NO reduction effect appeared with the timing retard in the first combustion process. Soot emission in the exhaust gas of the four-stroke engine was low level and it was not affected by the timing retard of injection. However, the level of soot emission from the six-stroke engine was strongly affected by the timing of the second injection. When the injection timing was advanced from 528 degrees (12 ° BTDC), it was confirmed that the soot emission was lower than that of the four-stroke engine. From numerical analysis, it was considered that the soot formed in the first combustion process was oxidized in the second combustion process. On the contrary, when the injection timing was retarded from 528 degrees (12 ° BTDC), soot emission increased with the timing retard. Then, it was considered that the increased part of the soot was formed in the second combustion process because an available period for combustion was shortened with the retard of injection timing. Experimental conditions were Xi = Xi I = 170 degrees (100 BTDC) and XiII=530 degrees (100 BTDC). The heat allocation ratio of six stroke engine was ÃŽ ±H=0.5. The cylinder temperature and heat release rate were calculated from the cylinder pressure. The pattern of heat release rate in the first combustion stroke of the six-stroke engine was similar to that of the heat release rate of the four-stroke engine. It was the typical combustion pattern that contained a pre-mixed combustion and diffusion combustion. On the other hand, since an increase of cylinder temperature in the second combustion process was caused by the compression of the burned gas formed in the first combustion stroke, a pre-mixed combustion in the second combustion process was suppressed by a short ignition delay. The maximum cylinder temperature in the first combustion process was lower than that in the four-stroke engine. It was caused by smaller amount of fuel which was injected in the first combustion process. Considering these results, it was proved that NO concentration in the exhaust gas was reduced by the decrease of the maximum cylinder temperature in the first co mbustion process and EGR effect in the second combustion process. The performance of these two engines could be compared by Table. 3. Since BSFC of the six-stroke engine obtained by the brake power suffered, SFC is compared with ISFC for the Xi = 163 degree (170 BTDC), ISFC of the four-stroke engine was 177.2 g/KW-h. On the other hand, for the Xi I = 165 degrees (15 ° BTDC) and Xi II = 523 degrees (170 BTDC), I.S the six-stroke engine was 163.3 g/KW-h. i.e. ISFC of the six-stroke engine was slightly lower than that of the four-stroke engine. It was considered that this advantage in ISFC was caused by a small cut-off ratio of constant pressure combustion. Because, in the six-stroke engine proposed here, the fuel divided into two combustion processes resulted in a short combustion period of each combustion process. Furthermore, in the reduction of NO emission, the six-stroke engine was superior to the four-stroke engine. 3.3.2 Effect of heat allocation ratio Injection conditions were Xi I = 170 degrees (1000 BTDC) and Xi II = 530 degrees (100 BTDC). Both fuels in the first and second combustion processes were diesel fuel. Total fuel at the combustion heat basis was Qt = 0.68 KJ/cycle. It meant a high load in this engine because the total excess air ratio was 1.83 as previously shown in Table 3. The maximum value of the indicated torque appeared around ÃŽ ±H = 0.5 NO concentration in exhaust gas was reduced by an increase of heat allocation ratio. In other words, NO emission decreased with an increase of the fuel of the second combustion process. In the case of ÃŽ ±H = 0.5, there is a relatively long ignition delay in the first combustion process and pre-mixed combustion was the main combustion phenomena in it. NO of high concentration was formed in this pre-mixed combustion process. On the other hand, in the case of ÃŽ ±H = 1, diffusion combustion was the main combustion phenomena and NO emission was low. Soot emission in exhaust gas increased with an increase of heat allocation ratio. Since the injection flow rate in the second combustion process increased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio, the injection period increased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. It caused the second combustion process to be long, and unburnt fuel that was the origin of soot remained after the second combustion process. The heat release rates on ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 and ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. For ÃŽ ±H =0.15, since injection flow rate in the first combustion process was high and injection period in it was long, the combustion period in the first combustion process became long as compared with case of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. On the other hand, for ÃŽ ±H = 0.85, the combustion period in the second combustion process became long as compared with case of ÃŽ ±H=0.15. It was also observed that the long combustion periods in both the first and second combustion were caused by the long diffusion combustion. Further, diffusion combustion was the main combustion phenomena of the second combustion process. When the heat allocation ratio was 0.85, the ratio of heat release rates between the first and second combustion should be 15: 85, however the actual ratio obtained from the figure was 46: 54. This inconsistency was caused from the drift of the base lines of the heat release diagrams. For ÃŽ ±H = 0.15, the actual ratio of heat release rates was 73: 27 with the similar reason. The cylinder temperature for the ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition was higher than that of the ÃŽ ±H = 0.85 condition. This could be explained as follows. In the first combustion stroke, since the injection flow rate of ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 was higher than that of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85, the combustion temperature for the ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition was higher than that of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. In the second compression stroke, since the high temperature burned gas was re-compressed, the temperature of ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 was also higher than that of ÃŽ ±H = 0.85. As a result, the temperature at the beginning of the second combustion stroke was high in ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition as compared with ÃŽ ±H = 0.85 condition. At the later stage of the second combustion, however, the opposite relationship between these two temperatures were observed, because the injection flow rate of the second combustion process was low in ÃŽ ±H = 0.15 condition. The maximum temperatures in the first and second combustion process decreased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. Then, it could be concluded that the reduction of NO concentration with the heat allocation ratio, was caused by the decrease of the cylinder temperature. 3.4 Performance of the dual fuel six stroke diesel engine 3.4.1 Comparison with diesel fuel six stroke engine Operating conditions of comparison between the diesel fuel and the dual fuel six-stroke engines are shown in Table. 4. Experimental conditions were Xi I= 170 degrees (100 BTDC), Xi II = 530 degrees (10o BTDC) and ÃŽ ±H = 0.5. In dual fuel six-stroke engine, diesel fuel and methanol were supplied into first and second combustion process, independently. Combustion heats supplied per one cycle of the diesel fuel and dual fuel six-stroke engines were same. The combustion heat supplied per one cycle was selected as Qt = 0.43 KJ/cycle under the middle load condition. Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was compared with the diesel fuel six-stroke engine under various injection timings in the second combustion process. Indicated torques of both engines was revealed constant around 15 N-m. As a result, it could be concluded that states of combustion of the diesel fuel and the dual fuel six-stroke engines had similar contributions on the engine performance. NO emissions from the dual fuel six-stroke engine were lower than those of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine. This effect appeared prominently at the advanced injection timing of the second combustion. Further, NO concentrations of both engines were reduced by the injection timing retard in the second combustion. [pic] Fig 16 Torque- Angle diagram for six stroke engine Soot emission in the exhaust gas of the diesel fuel six stroke engines increased with a retard of the injection timing in the second combustion. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, the exhaust level of soot was very low under various injection timings of the second combustion process. Soot was formed clearly by the combustion of diesel fuel in the first combustion process and it was oxidized in the second combustion process. Considering these results, it was possible to estimate that soot was almost oxidized by methanol combustion in the second combustion process. This estimation is supported by a dual fuel diesel engine operated with diesel fuel methanol. The combustion heat supplied per one cycle was selected as Qt = 0.68 KJ/cycle under the high load condition. Indicated torques of both engines was also revealed constant around 20 N-m. NO concentration had the same tendency as the cases of the middle load. Soot emission level of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine was high in this high load condition. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, however, soot was very low under various injection timings of the second combustion process. The performance of these engines was compared in Table. 4. For the second combustion process, since combustion heats of diesel fuel and methanol were different, injection quantities of both engines were different. BSFC and ISFC of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was sensibly higher than that of the diesel fuel engine. To compare the performance of these engines, injection quantity of both engines was defined by an amount of combustion heat, and SFC should be calculated from it. As a result, indicated specific heat consumption of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine was 5.59 MJ/KW-h, and that of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was 5.43 MJ/KW-h. For the high load conditions shown in Table. 5, the similar advantage of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was observed. Table 4. Detailed conditions of comparison between the diesel fuel and dual fuel diesel engines and performance of engines under ÃŽ ±H = 0.5 and middle load | |Diesel Fuel Six Stroke Diesel |Dual Fuel Six Stroke | | |Engine |Diesel Engine | |Engine Speed Ne [rpm] |2016 |2003 | |Supplied combustion heat per cycle | | | |Qt [KJ/cycle] |0.43 | | |Injection quantity per cycle |5.0 | | |(First Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) | | |Mf1 [mg/cycle] | | | |Injection quantity per cycle |5.0 |10.7 | |(Second Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) |(Methanol) | |Mf2 [mg/cycle] | | | |Excess air ratio ÃŽ » |2.98 |3.15 | |Brake torque Tb [N-m] |3.14 |3.14 | |Brake power Lb [KW] |0.66 |0.66 | |B.S.F.C. b [ g / KW-h] | 610.9 |952.9 | |I.M.E.P. Pi [Kgf / cm2] |3.43 |3.53 | |Indicated torque Ti [N-m] |16.70 |15.12 | |Indicated power Li [KW] |3.1 |2.77 | |I.S.F.C. bi [g / KW-h ] |130.1 |198.4 | |Indicated specific heat consumption | | | |bi’ [MJ /KW-h] |5.59 |5.43 | In order to confirm the advantage of dual fuel six-stroke engine, the performance of these engines was compared with four-stroke engine as shown in Table. 6. NO concentrations of the diesel fuel and the dual fuel six-stroke engines were improved with 85 90% as compared with that of the four-stroke engine. Soot emission of the diesel fuel six-stroke engine was much higher than that of the four-stroke engine. However, for the dual fuel six-stroke engine, soot level was very low. Furthermore, the indicated specific heat consumption of the diesel fuel and dual fuel six-stroke engine were lower than that of the four-stroke engine. Especially, for the dual fuel six-stroke engine, the indicated specific heat consumption was improved with 15% as compared with that of the four stroke engine. From these results, it could be confirmed that the dual fuel six-stroke engine was superior to the diesel fuel six-stroke engine, and also it was superior to the four-stroke engine. Table 6. Percentage improvements of exhaust emission and specific heat consumption | |Four Stroke Diesel | Six Stroke Diesel Engine|Dual Fuel Six Stroke Engine | | |Engine | | | |NO [ppm] | |113 |90.5 | |( % improvement) |768 |(85.3%) |(88.2%) | |Soot [%] | |28.8 |0 | |(%improvement) |6.8 |(- 323.5%) |(100%) | |Indicated specific heat consumption bi’ | | | | |[MJ/KW-h] |7.51 |6.61 |6.37 | |(% improvement) | |(12.0%) |(15.2%) | Table 5. Detailed conditions of comparison between the diesel fuel and dual fuel diesel engine and performance of engines under ÃŽ ±H =0.5 and high load | | Six Stroke Diesel Engine |Dual Fuel Six Stroke Engine | |Engine Speed Ne [rpm] |2016 |2006 | |Supplied combustion heat per cycle | | | |Qt [kJ/cycle] |0.68 | | |Injection quantity per cycle |8.0 | | |(First Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) | | |Mf1 [mg/cycle] | | | |Injection quantity per cycle |8.0 |17.2 | |(Second Combustion Stroke) |(Diesel Fuel) |(Methanol) | |Mf2 [mg/cycle] | | | |Excess air ratio ÃŽ » |1.86 |1.93 | |Brake torque Tb [N-m] |6.18 |6.08 | |Brake power Lb [kW] |1.52 |1.5 | |B.S.F.C. b [ g / kW.h] | 504.0 |777.7 | |I.M.E.P. Pi [kgf / cm2] |4.56 |4.75 | |Indicated torque Ti [N-m] |21.68 |20.38 | |Indicated power Li [kW] |3.45 |2.98 | |I.S.F.C. bi [g / kW.h ] |155.5 |236.2 | |Indicated specific heat consumption | | | |bi’ [MJ /kW.h] |6.61 |6.37 | 3.4.2 Effect of injection timing Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine under various injection timings in the second combustion process was investigated on middle and high load. Experimental conditions were Xi I = 170 degrees (100 BTDC) and ÃŽ ±H = 0.5. Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine under both load conditions had the similar tendency with the timing retard. NO concentrations in the high load condition were higher than those of the middle load condition. However, soot emission levels of both load conditions were extremely low under various injection timings of the second combustion. 3.4.3 Effect of heat allocation ratio Performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine under various heat allocation ratios was investigated on middle and high load. Injection conditions were Xi I = 170 degrees (100 BTDC) and Xi II = 530 degrees (100 BTDC). Since the combustion heat of methanol was low, experimental range of heat allocation ratio was limited by the smooth operation of the engine. Only the range from ÃŽ ±H = 0.25 to 0.75 (on Qt = 0.43 KJ/cycle), and from ÃŽ ±H = 0 to 0.5 (on Qt = 0.68 KJ/cycle) could be tested.. Indicated torque increased with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. NO concentration in exhaust gas was reduced with an increase of the heat allocation ratio. Soot was very low, irrespective of the methanol flow rate. Even if the load condition was high, it was concluded that soot was practically eliminated by a small amount of methanol in the second combustion process (8% of total fuel). 4. ADVANTAGES OF SIX STROKE OVER FOUR STROKE ENGINES The six stroke is thermodynamically more efficient because the change in volume of the power stroke is greater than the intake stroke, the compression stroke and the Six stroke engine is fundamentally superior to the four stroke because the head is no longer parasitic but is a net contributor to – and an integral part of – the power generation within exhaust stroke. The compression ration can be increased because of the absent of hot spots and the rate of change in volume during the critical combustion period is less than in a Four stroke. The absence of valves within the combustion chamber allows considerable design freedom. 4.1 Main advantages of the duel fuel six-stroke engine: 4.1.1 Reduction in fuel consumption by at least 40%: An operating efficiency of approximately 50%, hence the large reduction in specific consumption. the Operating efficiency of current petrol engine is of the order of 30%. The specific power of the six-stroke engine will not be less than that of a four-stroke petrol engine, the increase in thermal efficiency compensating for the issue due to the two additional strokes. 4.1.2 Two expansions (work) in six strokes: Since the work cycles occur on two strokes (3600 out of 10800 ) or 8% more than in a four-stroke engine (1800 out of 720 ), the torque is much more even. This lead to very smooth operation at low speed without any significant effects on consumption and the emission of pollutants, the combustion not being affected by the engine speed. These advantages are very important in improving the performance of car in town traffic. 4.1.2 Dramatic reduction in pollution: Chemical, noise and thermal pollution are reduced, on the one hand, in proportion to the reduction in specific consumption, and on the other, through the engine’s own characteristics which will help to considerably lower HC, CO and NOx emissions. Furthermore, it’s ability to run with fuels of vegetable origin and weakly pollutant gases under optimum conditions, gives it qualities which will allow it to match up to the strictest standards. 4.1.3 Multifuel: Multifuel par excellence, it can use the most varied fuels, of any origin (fossil or vegetable), from diesel to L.P.G. or animal grease. The difference in inflammability or antiknock rating does not present any problem in combustion. It’s light, standard petrol engine construction, and the low compression ration of the combustion chamber; do not exclude the use of diesel fuel. Methanol-petrol mixture is also recommended. 5. CONCLUSIONS The performance of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was investigated. In this dual fuel engine, diesel fuel was supplied into the first combustion process and methanol was supplied into the second combustion process where  the burned gas in the first combustion process was re-compressed. The results are summarized as follows. 1. Indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC.) of the six-stroke engine proposed here is slightly lower than that of the four-stroke engine (about 9% improvement). NO and soot emissions from the six-stroke engine was improved as compared with four-stroke engine under advanced injection timings in the second combustion stroke. 2. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, the timing retard and an increase of heat allocation ratio in the second combustion stroke resulted in a decrease of the maximum temperatures in the combustion processes. It caused the reduction of NO emission. 3. For the dual fuel six-stroke engine, soot was practically eliminated by a small amount of methanol in the second combustion process. 4. From the comparison of the performance between the dual fuel six-stroke and the four-stroke engine, it was concluded that indicated specific heat consumption of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was improved with 15% as compared with the four-stroke engine. NO concentration of the dual fuel six-stroke engine was improved with 90%. Furthermore, soot emission was very low in the dual fuel six-stroke engine. 5. As the fuel in one cycle was divided into two combustion processes and the EGR effect appeared in the second combustion process, the decreased maximum cylinder temperature reduced NO concentration in the exhaust gas It was further confirmed that soot formed in the first combustion process was oxidized in the second combustion process .Therefore, a six stroke DI diesel engine has significant possibilities to improve combustion process because of its more controllable factors relative to a conventional four-stroke engine. Considering these results, it was confirmed that the dual fuel six-stroke engine was superior to the four-stroke engine. 6. REFERENCES 1. Tsunaki Hayasaki, Yuichirou Okamoto, Kenji Amagai and Masataka Arai â€Å"A Six-stroke DI Diesel Engine under Dual Fuel Operation â€Å"SAE Paper No 1999-01-1500 2. S.Goto and K.Kontani, A Dual Fuel Injector for Diesel Engines, SAE paper, No. 851584, 1985 3. â€Å"Internal Combustion Engines â€Å"A book by Mathur Sharma. 4. â€Å"Internal Combustion Engines† Tata McGraw-hill publications, Author V Ganesan 7. NOMENCLATURE Ne : Engine speed X : Crank angle Xi : Injection timing of the four-stroke diesel engine ÃŽ ±H : Heat allocation ratio Q : Supplied combustion heat Qt : Supplied combustion heat per cycle P : Cylinder pressure V : Cylinder volume Vs : Stroke volume Pi : Indicated mean effective pressure (LM.E.P) Ti : Indicated torque Li : Indicated power Tb : Brake torque Lb : Brake power Ht : Supplied combustion heat per unit time Ma : Intake air flow per cycle Ma : Intake air flow per unit time Mf : Injection quantity per cycle Mi : Injection quantity per unit time ÃŽ » : Excess air ratio b : Brake specific fuel consumption (B.S.F.C.) bl : Indicated specific fuel consumption (I.S.F.C.) bi : Indicated specific heat consumption SUBSCRIPTS I: first combustion stroke II: second combustion stroke 4: four-stroke diesel engine 6: six-stroke diesel engine

The Turning Point in John Updikes A & P Essay -- A&P Essays

The Turning Point in John Updike's A & P John Updike's short story "A & P" reveals nineteen-year old Sammy, the central character, as a complex person. Although Sammy appears, on the surface, as carefree and driven by male hormones, he has a lengthy agenda to settle. Through depersonalization, Sammy reveals his ideas about sexuality, social class, stereotypes, responsibility, and authority. Updike's technique, his motif, is repeated again and again through the active teenage mind of the narrator Sammy. Sammy is, like most young men, object-minded. The object of his mind is the female body. Although his upbringing and the fact that he is at work do not allow him to voice his admiration for the girls in bikinis at the A & P, he lets the reader know, in no uncertain terms, what he is thinking. He gives each girl a name--Plaid, Big Tall Goony Goony, and Queenie--based on his evaluation of their physical body parts. The game is one that teenagers play the world over, with countless hours spent seeing and being seen. The primary object to view, in Sammy's eyes, is the queen. He describes how "she must have felt in the corner of her eye me and over my shoulder Stokesie in the second slot watching, but she didn't tip. Not this queen" (28). Sammy goes on to tell how "she [...] turned so slow it made [his] stomach rub the inside of [his] apron" (28). The irony of the setting is that the girls, dressed in nothing but swimsuits, have turned the neighborhood grocery store into a human meat mark et, with themselves as the commodity of choice for the male consumer. In Sammy's mind's eye, the queen was of such regal bearing that she commanded his worship. He envisioned his well-bred idol as being of a higher social class than his own. ... ...iphany that afternoon in the A & P. Sammy's immaturity and lack of experience were largely to blame for his wrestling with conflicting roles in his transition from child to adult. Updike's protagonist was at the same time an imaginative, observant young man who stood by his convictions, defending the girls to the end. Sammy was perhaps more intelligent and more gutsy than one would like to give him credit for, however. He knew what he did not want out of life. On that Thursday afternoon in the A & P, his name game caught up with him. Quitting his job was to be a turning point for him, a time for him to confront his own issues of sexuality, social class, stereotyping, responsibility, and, on a deeper leve, authority. Work Cited Updike, John. "A & P." Literature: Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and the Essay. Ed. Robert DiYanni. 5th ed. New York: McGraw, 1998. 27-31.

Understanding the Rise of the Environmental Movement Through

Understanding the rise of the Environmental Movement through the use of Max Weber’s 4 types of ‘Social Action’ Sociology 101 – Laura Meehan Historically, while industrialization and production have flourished, there has been little concern regarding the environment’s well being. However, now more than ever, there has been a growing awareness and acceptance of environmentalism, as people begin to realize that the large-scale environmental destruction we have caused, cannot be mended or manipulated by technological fixes.This somewhat ‘new’ movement to enter into the political arena claims it is necessity that the foundations of modern industrial society have to be challenged and restructured, as well that we must transform our social actions in order for it to succeed. Through the use of Max Weber’s 4 types of ‘social action’, we are able to better understand and analyze the reasons for change, progress, and setbacks w ithin the environmental movement. To begin with, in sociology, ‘social action’ refers to â€Å"all human behavior when and in so far as the acting individual attaches a subjective meaning to it† (Anderson, Karen L. 2012), â€Å"Thinking About Sociology: A Critical Introduction† (p. 155). ) Additionally, as defined by Weber himself, social actions â€Å"[are] interpreting the meanings which men give to their actions and so understand the actions themselves. † (Matthews, Eric (1978), â€Å"Selections In Translation† (p. 7). ) Point in fact, there are four types of ‘social actions’: 1. Goal rational: social action motivated by specific goals, 2. Value rational: social action motivated by weighing goal and how it is achieved, 3. Affectual action: social action motivated by emotions, and 3. Traditional action: action motivated by a tradition or custom.Therefore with specific regards to the environmental movement, value rational and af fectual actions are the most relevant social actions. Generally speaking, value rational is the absolute essence of this movement as it strives for more ethical approaches to consumption, while focusing not only on the goal, rather how it is achieved. A perfect example to compliment this is to take a glance at how companies are turning to ‘fair trade’ products, which are organized to help producers in developing countries make better trading conditions and promote environmental sustainability.Pursuing this further, another ideal example of how the environmental movement encompasses a value rational action is the ‘100km diet’. This ‘diet’ refers to only eating food grown or produced within 100 kilometers of your locale, and amongst other goals, promotes environmental sustainability. The diet reduces the amount of â€Å"food miles†-which is the distance food is transported from the producer to the store, including the emissions created-tha t each person's meal goes through. It undoubtedly captures the principle of value rational action, as it is entirely focuses on how ‘the goal’ is achieved.Consequently, the environmental movement also clearly demonstrates social actions motivated by emotions, or therefore, affectual action. Many parents have joined the movement in hopes that they will be able to give their children, grandchildren, and future families the same or better quality of life in which they’ve experienced in their lifetime. This action is directly driven by their emotions; the very thought of their children suffering in the future’s daunting changing environments pulls on their heart strings, and they join the movement to avoid a negative future.However in contrast, without allude to the less pertinent role of ‘goal action’ as well as ‘traditional action’, we would not be able to fully comprehend the restrictions as well as the difficulties the movement is faced with. First off, the issue regarding the restriction of the movement’s progress is owing to the fact that a large portion of post-industrial society is still focused on the capitalist mode of production. More specifically, they are focused on increasing production and feeding the starving mouths of consumerism.Capitalism urges surplus production, which can leave devastation destruction to the land in which it occupies; deforestation, toxic waste and pollution, oil spills, and much more. Pursuing this further, this portrays how the very basis of capitalism, is goal rational; governments or corporations have a set economic goal in mind, and will essentially put their ethics on a shelf, in order to achieve their goal. This can stunt or sometimes bring the movement’s progress to a halt, as it can be a very grueling change as the environmental movement tries to hift the social action from a goal rational society to a value rational society. Similarly, the changes in which occupy the environmental movement are also limited by a multiplicity of people whom are reluctant to alter their lifestyles, as they are comfortable with the way they’ve always done things. This would clearly outline an individual, or group of individuals, in which fall under traditional action. They are comfortable with the lifestyle and traditions they have, and they are not willing to change, with the reason that it is ‘the way things have always been done’.This has been a great restriction for the movement, and may partially be driven by the fear of change and what will come. In final analysis, Weber’s four types of social action are useful conceptual tools for explaining and understanding contemporary social reality, as they allow us to analyze particular patterns that constitute the institutions, organizations, structures, and norms of society. â€Å"Social action (which includes failure to act and being acted upon) can be related to the past, present or anticipated future behavior of other people. (Matthews, Eric (1978), â€Å"Selections In Translation† (p. 26). ) Attempting to understand an individual or group’s actions and the results, is necessary to formulate an explanation of how society works, as well as how social change transpires. It can give insight on why a group or individual acted in a certain way, or predict how they may react in any future or hypothetical situations. In the same way, the more precise the ideal type, the more useful it is to devise classifications of groups or individuals and to produce hypotheses regarding the implication of their social actions. The more radically these ultimate values diverge from our own, the more difficult it is for us to understand them be re-living them through an act of empathetic imagination. † (Matthews, Eric (1978), â€Å"Selections In Translation† (p. 11). ) What is being outlined by Weber, is that social actions are not only useful i n an analytical sense, however they allow us to reason another’s actions from a different standpoint than that of our own.Consequently, another feature of these conceptual tools is to note how the actions of individuals must be analyzed to determine their consequences, since there may be unintended consequences to individual or group social action, or of the combined effects of each of these actions, which in turn can assist us in explaining contemporary social reality. In conclusion, social actions allow us to see a different perspective and understand why a group or individual acts the way they do, what motivates them, and how it can influence their social reality.Through the use of Max Weber’s 4 types of ‘social action’, we are able to clearly comprehend, analyze and predict reasons for change, progress, and setbacks within the environmental movement. Bibliography Matthews, Eric. â€Å"The Nature of Social Action. † Weber: Selections In Translati on. 1st ed. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Pg. 7, 11 & 25. Print. Anderson, Karen L. â€Å"Chapter 6. † Thinking About Sociology: A Critical Introduction. Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press Canada, 2012. Pg. 155. Print.

Of mice and men dramatically conveys to us the vital importance of dreams in helping us to deal Essay

â€Å"Of mice and men dramatically conveys to us the vital importance of dreams in helping us to deal; with the often difficult realities of our lives.† In this novella by John Steinbeck, some characters had dreams to get them out of difficult realities, their dreams helped them to combat the loneliness and hopelessness of there existence. George Milton and Lenny Small, two poor homeless migrant workers who belonged nowhere and to know one were doomed to a life of wandering and toil, in which they will neve be able to reap the fruits of there labour. The one thing that that kept them strong through this repetitive and useless life was a dream. â€Å"Someday we’re gonna get the jack together and we’re gonna have a little house and a couple of acres an’ a cow and some pigs† (George- pg 14). It was a dream that was shared by every American worker, to have a place of their own, the opportunity to work for themselves and know one to give them orders. For Lenny the dream was very much real, it helped him to cope with the boredom that he faced and he always went to sleep happy thinking about tending the rabbits. For George on the other hand, the dream was at first like a fairytale he told Lenny to bring a smile upon his face and the promise of tending the rabbits helped him to stay out of trouble but all the while he was very optimistic about the dream and felt that there was no way it would become a reality. George’s first views towards the dream were soon changed when Candy found out about what they were planning, he offers financial help and suddenly a new view is seen of the dream. This unexpected offer by Candy means that the dream is no longer a fantasy and finally all the pain and suffering might have payed off for George, Lenny and Candy but the threat to the fulfilment of this dream is ever present in Lenny’s behaviour and in the end its Lenny’s uncontrollable actions which finally destroy dream. The dream is constantly changing, at first it was just a story told by George to cheer up Lenny, then in the middle it seemed like it would come true and finally in the end it was apparent that everyone’s dreams were shattered with Lenny as the only exception, because he dies happy with the picture of the dream in his head. Candy wishes to share in the dream with George and Lenny because he is becoming old and useless like his dog, he has nowhere to go to and now one to care about him and unlike his dog they’re not going to take him out and shoot him, instead there going to put him in an old folks home where he will feel lonely and have no freedom. By joining Lenny and George he can live out his days happy and free, forever safe knowing he won’t be canned. Once Candy realises that the dream is more or less a reality he stands up for what he believes in with dignity and courage, something he didn’t do before he realised the dream was within reach. Candy realises that he doesn’t have to be the useless old cripple anymore because he can live the rest of his life happy, without being told what to do. Candy’s dream ended in a pessimistic way because all he wanted got destroyed leaving him with nothing and hence left in the same way he was before the dream- old, useless and hanging onto his job by a thread. Crooks dream was to be respected and not judged by his colour, he too wanted to live on the ranch with Candy, George and Lenny. Crooks is an example of the bitterness, anger and hopelessness that a black American struggling to be recognised as a human being is faced with. At first Crooks was most cynical about the dream of owning a ranch but the dream was powerful enough to convince him that it was the real thing for a few moments only to be shattered by Curley’s wife who made it clear that there is no way a black, crippled outcast such as himself would ever make such a dream a reality. That statement that Curly’s wife made, made Crooks realise that he was nothing more than an outcast and what she said was in a way true, with that all the hopes and dreams of Crooks were crushed. Like Crooks, Curley’s wife is stricken with isolation and sadness. She was out of place on the ranch and because of that she was a really lonesome person with lonesome feelings and hence was often desperate for someone to talk to. Throughout the novel Curley’s wife stirred up many emotions among the workers of the ranch, such as the way she looked and acted lead other characters in the novel to see her as a â€Å"tart†. Curly’s wife indulged in a dream which had already passed her by, leaving her with a life of empty hope. Like many young women, she aspired to stardom in films after being wrongly told that she was a â€Å"natural†. At first she seemed cold hearted and set herself to make trouble but then it became apparent that she was just lonely adn wanted someone to talk to and as Curley was not interested in hearing about her hopes or dreams, the only person she found willing to listen to was Lenny.

The Purple Rose of Cairo essays

The Purple Rose of Cairo essays Many messages can be derived from Woody Allens 1984 success, Purple Rose of Cairo. It is easy to see that this is one of Allens more subdued films, and for good reason. He is truly keeping with the 1930s code of moral decency by using overly tame ideas and actions throughout the movie. An example is when Tom challenges Gil to a fight and gets beaten up because he expects Gil to play fair. This moral statement, although somewhat of a parody, shows us that it is possible to be brought into a totally different era (the 1930s) and genre (fantasy) and still have something to think about after having watched the movie. The ending of the film is one that has come as a surprise and disappointment to many viewers. Cecilia is left abandoned by both Tom and Gil. It seems like a disappointment, but it leaves a very strong statement. Allen is saying that the setting of his constant cliches is just a movie as well. He is taking us out of not just the romantic illusions he is deflating in the film within the film, but also this movies romantic illusion to us. Its his moral reminder to us that no matter what expectations we might have of characters on a screen that happy endings dont always work out in real life. Although it is disappointing, it needs to be said. "The Purple Rose of Cairo" is quite balanced with its messages. Allen deftly creates multiple themes and thoughts on film and its relation to reality without ever harming the story, but also makes the two work hand-in-hand. By having a reason for Tom to walk off the screen, he creates a fantastically leveled fable on life, and how film can truly affect it. Allen is also very responsible about it. If taken out of hand, film can cause people to blur reality with the fictitious, which is made notable through Cecilia's relationships with Tom and Gil. Through this conflict, Allen shows that people often ...

Three Basic Principles of Utilitarianism

Three Basic Principles of Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is one of the most important and influential moral theories of modern times. In many respects, it is the outlook of Scottish philosopher  David Hume (1711-1776) and his writings from the mid-18th century. But it received both its name and its clearest statement in the writings of English philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Even today Mills essay Utilitarianism, which was published in 1861, remains one of the most widely taught expositions of the doctrine. There are three principles that serve as the basic axioms of utilitarianism. 1. Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly Has Intrinsic Value. Utilitarianism gets its name from the term utility, which in this context does not mean useful but, rather, means pleasure or happiness.  To say that something has intrinsic value means that it is simply good in itself.  A world in which this thing exists, or is possessed, or is experienced, is better than a world without it (all other things being equal). Intrinsic value contrasts with instrumental value.  Something has instrumental value when it is a means to some end.  For example, a screwdriver has instrumental value to the carpenter; it is not valued for its own sake but for what can be done with it. Now Mill admits that we seem to value some things other than pleasure and happiness for their own sake- we value health, beauty, and knowledge in this way. But he argues that we  never  value anything unless we associate it in some way with pleasure or happiness. Thus, we value beauty because it is pleasurable to behold. We value knowledge because,  usually, it is useful to us in coping with the world, and hence is linked to happiness. We value love and friendship because they are sources of pleasure and happiness. Pleasure and happiness, though, are unique in being valued purely for their own sake. No other reason for valuing them needs to be given. It is better to be happy than sad. This cant really be proved. But everyone thinks this. Mill thinks of happiness as consisting of many and varied pleasures. Thats why he runs the two concepts together. Most utilitarians, though, talk mainly of happiness, and that is what we will do from this point on. 2. Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness, Wrong Insofar as They Produce Unhappiness. This principle is controversial. It makes utilitarianism a form of consequentialism since it says that the morality of an action is decided by its consequences. The more happiness is produced among those affected by the action, the better the action is. So, all things being equal, giving presents to a whole gang of children is better than giving a present to just one. Similarly, saving two lives is better than saving one life. That can seem quite sensible. But the principle is controversial because many people would say that what decides the morality of an action is the  motive  behind it. They would say, for instance, that if you give $1,000 to charity because you want to look good to voters in an election, your action is not so deserving of praise as if you gave $50 to charity motivated by compassion, or a sense of duty. 3. Everyones Happiness Counts Equally. This may strike you as a rather obvious moral principle. But when it was put forward by Bentham (in the form, everyone to count for one; no-one for more than one) it was quite radical. Two hundred years ago, it was a commonly held view that some lives, and the happiness they contained, were simply more important and valuable than others.  For example, the lives of masters were more important than slaves; the well-being of a king was more important than that of a peasant. So in Benthams time, this principle of equality was decidedly progressive.  It lay behind calls on the government to pass policies that would benefit all equally, not just the ruling elite. It is also the reason why utilitarianism is very far removed from any kind of egoism. The doctrine does not say that you should strive to maximize your own happiness. Rather, your happiness is just that of one person and carries no special weight. Utilitarians like the Australian philosopher Peter Singer take this idea of treating everyone equally very seriously. Singer argues that we have the same obligation to help needy strangers in far-off places as we have to help those closest to us. Critics think that this makes utilitarianism unrealistic and too demanding. But in Utilitarianism,  Mill attempts to answer this criticism by arguing that the general happiness is best served by each person focusing primarily on themselves and those around them. Benthams commitment to equality was radical in another way, too. Most moral philosophers before him had held that human beings have no particular obligations to animals since animals cant reason or talk, and they lack free will. But in Benthams view, this is irrelevant. What matters is whether an animal is capable of feeling pleasure or pain. He doesnt say that we should treat animals as if they were human. But he does think that the world is a better place if there is more pleasure and less suffering among the animals as well as among us. So we should at least avoid causing animals unnecessary suffering.

Definition of Conjugation in English Grammar

Definition of Conjugation in English Grammar From the Latin join together, conjugation (pronunciation: kon-je-GA-shen) refers to the inflection of verbs for person, number, tense, and mood, also called a verbal paradigm. Conjugation In English Grammar Though the term conjugation is still used in some forms of traditional English grammar, contemporary linguists generally regard it as an unnecessary holdover from Latin and Old English. According to the  Oxford Companion to the English Language, the term conjugation is relevant to the grammar of Old English, in which there were seven conjugations of strong verbs, but not to Modern English, although irregular verbs can be divided into a number of pattern groups. Learning Conjugation Rules Remember when in grade school our teachers had us and the rest of class conjugate verbs? Together we pledged or maybe mumbled, I talk, You talk, He/She/It talks, We talk, You talk, They talk. Whatever language we were learning, at whatever age, conjugation taught us proper use of verb tenses, which in English are time distinctions grouped broadly by past, present, or future; also, each verb had to be connected to a personal pronoun acting as its subject.(Davis) Principle Parts Conjugation means breaking a verb down into its different forms to show person, number, tense, and voice.All verbs have three basic forms, which are called their principal parts. From these basic forms, you can make up the tense of any verb. The first principal part is the verb itself. This is the part with which you are most familiar: form, change, discuss. The second principal part is the past tense form. The third principal part is the past participle.(Williams) Aspects of Finiteness Frankly (and sadly) most of us learned basic conjugation in foreign-language class. We learned to conjugate verbs in Spanish, French, or Latin. Unfortunately, many people did not learn basic conjugation in English class. Some did not learn correct conjugation.When you conjugate a verb, you have to cover all three aspects of finiteness: time (thats tense), people (thats person, as in first person, second person, and third person), and quantity (thats number, either singular or plural.(Good) Verbal Paradigms: See and Talk Let us consider [...] the verbal paradigm in English to see how a paradigm works. A verb in English has several forms. The verb see has the forms see, sees, seeing, saw, and (have) seen. We take the lexical item itself to be see, which we pronounce see. Some of the forms of see are entirely predictable, some are not. When a form is predictable from the morphological paradigm, we say that it is regular; when a form is not predictable, it is irregular. So the form seen is not predictable as the past participle (She has never seen Paris like this), nor is the form saw as the past tense.On the other hand, a verb like talk is completely regular: talk, talks, talking, talked, and (have) talked. We want to capture the fact that saw and talked are both past tense forms, even though one is irregular and the other one is regular.(Culicover) The Lighter Side of Conjugations Rupinder continued to dominate the class, but she didnt seem to be learning anything. On a quiz at the end of the week she tried to conjugate the verb wake. Wake, she wrote. Past tense: woke. Past participle: wank. I didnt have the heart to tell her she was wrong.(Dixon) Conjugate This I cut class, you cut class, he, she, it cuts class. We cut class, they cut class. We all cut class. I cannot say this in Spanish because I did not go to Spanish today. Gracias a dios. Hasta luego.(Anderson) Resources and Further Reading Anderson, Laurie Halse. Speak. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999.Culicover, Peter W. Natural Language Syntax. Oxford University, 2009.Davis, Bob. Your Writing Well. International, 2014.Dixon, Glenn. Pilgrim in the Palace of Words: A Journey Through the 6,000 Languages of Earth. Dundurn, 2009.Good, C. Edward. A Grammar Book for You and I... Oops, Me!: All the Grammar You Need to Succeed in Life. Capital, 2002.McArthur, Tom, et al., editors. Oxford Companion to the English Language. 2nd ed., Oxford University, 2018.Williams, Karen Schneiter. Basic English Review. 9th ed., Cengage, 2010.

Internet memes in light of The work of art in the age of Mechanical Essay

Internet memes in light of The work of art in the age of Mechanical Reproduction by Walter Benjamin - Essay Example This research paper is aimed at highlighting the importance of this prominent means of communicating ideas while relating it to the concepts of arts developed by Walter Bejamin in his article "The work of Art in the age of the Mechanical Reproduction". Discussion Immediately following the development of the concept of internet memes, the idea was taken by many in the field and a number of websites appeared which served the purpose of providing newly developed memes with expressions which could be molded according to one's needs. This was not limited to internet sites only; a number of books, e-books and social media sites also serve the purpose. Literature review Although abundant information is available regarding the various aspects of memes, only those resources will be selected which resonate with the ideas brought forward by Walter Benjamin in the selected article. To prevent bias from disrupting the authenticity of the document, equal importance will be given to resources with supporting or confronting views. Dawkin's (1976) work 'The selfish gene' will be used to get an idea about the origin of the concept of memes. The work of Shifman (2009) will be used to get an idea about the current trends about internet memes. Strohecker's (2012) work about authenticity of art works will be referred to for explaining in detail the nature of authenticity of art works. ... Burgress (2007) has described memes to be 'vernacular creativity'; she considers that memes are the result of daily artistic and innovative thoughts of people that take the form of an idea and are produced by simple means. Milner (2012) talks about memes and claims that with the passage of time and with improvement in technology, websites related to the development of memes are getting user friendly. Therefore, the range of topics and ideas covered by developers of memes are according to their age and interests; this implies that the themes of memes fall under literally thousands of categories. It is for this reason that a standard classification of memes according to genres is not feasible as yet. However, a general classification of memes can include categories like Reaction photoshops, Lipsynch, Misheard Lyrics and Recut Trailers etc (Shifman, 2014). It should however be understood that the basis of classification of memes can be different and various systems of classification of memes can be adapted depending upon the type of requirements under a given set of conditions. Aims of the project The aim of this project is to weigh the concept of memes against a standard; an article by a well known literary critic from Germany. Being the developer of the notion 'auratic perception', Walter in his work "The work of Art in the age of the Mechanical Reproduction" has discussed art in the light of the then prevailing circumstances in which the aspect of mechanical reproduction was very prominent. However, with the passage of time and with the development of new concepts and technologies, older methods of reproduction of art works have been replaced by a number of new methods. Although, a digital manifestation of the art works ensures rapid propagation

The Security Professional and their role in Emergency, Disaster and Essay

The Security Professional and their role in Emergency, Disaster and Contingency Planning - Essay Example It also explains the measures and techniques that the security professional use to handle different emergencies or disasters. An emergency refers to an unforeseen combination of circumstances whose resulting states of nature require immediate attention and actions. An emergency may be serious to the extent that if no immediate attention is provided, it can result to crucial and fatal situations. A contingency, on the other hand, refers to an event that has the possibility of either occurring or not occurring in the future as predicted. A disaster can occur if people live near hazardous areas like unstable slopes where landslides are most likely to happen active volcanoes or close to rivers that are likely to burst and flood any minute. Introduction Security professionals are a group of low voltage contractors, individuals, or firms that specialize in the installation of security systems (Fischer, 2008). These systems are installed either at homes, offices, business premises, military camps, or even sport centers and clubs. Security professional also engage in maintenance and servicing of the security systems installed at any given destination. The different types of security systems include fire alarms, burglar alarms, 24 hour emergency service, access control, internet and cellular monitoring, closed circuit television (CCTV) surveillance systems, 24 hour UL monitoring system, home theatres and outdoor intrusion detectors. Security professionals ensure that they provide the necessary security system for all destinations. For example, in providing for home security, there are different systems that can be provided and they include fire alarm notification and detection, medical emergency notification, intrusion detection and carbon monoxide detection (Fischer, 2008). The installation of home security is vital for any home because it provides 24 hour security to an individual’s loved ones especially when one is absent. This is because it aids in watching o ver one’s valuable possessions while absent from the house at any given time of day. This kind of protection is necessary since it reduces chances of burglary and intrusion. To aid in home security, also available are both wireless and hard wired systems that have a battery backup which keeps the homes protected even if power goes off. Security camera systems and video surveillance have gained popularity in protecting business areas like banks and other retail stores. Security cameras and videos have aided in improving security of these facilities because they tend to attract huge numbers of people that frequent their premises on a daily account. Security professionals have also had an upper hand in improving security in travel depots like air strips, shipping and port security, and the road transport security. Air port security is of utmost importance because a lot of people travel by plane. Security professionals seek to ensure that no passengers board the plane with prohib ited items that could cause a plane hijack or a staged bomb. This is done by ensuring that items like knives, pen knives, fire arms, scissors, box cutters, inflammable objects and other sharp objects are confiscated upon discovery at the checking points (Fischer, 2008). In road transport mainly operated by the buses, action plans are

The Last Lecture book discussion Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Last Lecture book discussion - Research Paper Example It is challenging news for the one who is going to die, and for the one who loves him heartily, it is a double tragedy. Three angel-like children cement their love. Under the protective wings of their joint affection they live a smooth life; what next if one wing is cut off by cruel destiny? Out of this impending certain tragedy, emerges the brilliant leader. â€Å"The Last Lecture† is just a tool to reveal the great qualities of head and heart of Randy Pausch, his daunting spirit, to make himself available to the cause that he dearly loved. He pens those two beautiful sentences in the book, (Introduction, p. x) â€Å"I lectured about the joy of life, about how much I appreciated life, even with so little of my own left. I talked about honesty, integrity, gratitude, and other things I hold dear. And I tried very hard not to be boring.† Even in such a grim situation, Pausch emerges like a brave warrior who remains glorious in defeat. He knows the count of his heartbeats; he appreciates the special individual who has right over those beats, but through sheer will power he transcends her magnetic pull, and The Last†¦.2 remains true to the duty which he considers he owes to the society. A leader is the one who makes the right choice at the right time and Pausch has before him a very, very, difficult choice. He is a great family man. Randy Pausch et al. (2008, p.6) writes, â€Å"That’s why I spent many of my walking hours making arrangements for my family’s future without me. Still I couldn’t let go of my urge to give this last lecture.† "We cannot change the cards we are dealt, just how we play the hand,† sums up everything about the challenge of life as perceived by Randy Pausch (p.17). The essential difference between â€Å"The Last Lecture† by other Professors and the one by him was that he was distinctly aware, without an iota of doubt that it was going to be his last. Incredible though, in such a grim situation, Pausch was not willing to talk about death and create an atmosphere of gloom which would ooze out sympathy for him and his family; his lecture was about â€Å"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams.† His final words were a great mixture of humor, inspiration and intelligence. While answering the questions put to him, he detached himself admirably from the deadly disease that was mercilessly leading him to the grave. He delivered his last lecture on September 18, 2007, a month after being diagnosed with terminal cancer. He knew he was heading out of the door for the last time, after delivering the lecture. While reading his observations in the book on the issues like managing time, learning to listen to others, re-thinking priorities etc. one feel as if one is interacting with a management guru, and not with an individual who is fighting the losing battle of his life. The subject of death The Last†¦.3 gets the lowest priority in his lecture, though it was topm ost in the minds of his audience that he was addressing that day. Pausch was thinking about other’s welfare and deeply pondered about the future of his family without him. He writes (p.8) about the possible benefit of his last lecture to his children thus: â€Å"When the kids are older, they’re going to go through this phase where they absolutely, achingly need to know: ‘Who was my dad? What was he like?’ This lecture could help give them an answer to that.†

Environmental Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Environmental Science - Essay Example ng energy saver bulbs at home instead of tube lights for most of the time; putting off microwave and television instead of putting them on standby mode; using water bottles that are reusable; purchasing a car that has more mileage on gas; composting my grass clippings instead of putting them in plastic bags and throwing them away; turning off extra lights at night and also during the day; and, reusing things like office papers and clothes. I have also decided to plant a tree somewhere, every year. This will help the environment go greener, making it sustainable. I want to adopt these things because I want to make my environment stable, and want to make the best use of natural resources. I want to do so because I have understood the importance of sustainable environment. Hence, my journal writing has invoked sustainable thinking within me, which is good not only for the environment, but also for me as a living

Survey of Healthcare Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Survey of Healthcare Management - Essay Example ng meeting every end year where the plies of the people are raised and taken into consideration, appraising performance, the management to provide a proper working environment which is safe and clean. To empower the involved parties activities to be carried out include offering educational talks about the nature of the industry and giving the workers a chance to develop themselves. The plan focuses on impacting skills to the workers through means such as on job training, providing leave outs for individuals to attend classes and offering scholarship opportunities to willing individuals who are competent to advance in their studies. This will arm them with the needed skills to enable the conduct their duties efficiently. The model advocates for teamwork by offering group work assignment to workers. There is also requests for the views of the community including the patients attended to and the families living in the area to rate the quality of the services provided (Olsen, Erica, 32=55). An employee training plan is a plan that captures all the activities to be carried out to ensure for the desired skill to be passed to the employee to ensure that they perform them with proficiency. The following activities will be adopted to ensure that there is efficiency in the plan. For example the classes are scheduled at the time the target group is able and easily access the class rooms, well trained tutors are to be hired to ensure delivery of the desired content and motivational allowances are provided. The skills should involve review of past periods policies and procedures and contrite on important topics The employee are empowered by being given a chance to part in decision making, given authority to act in given circumstances and taught how to solve issues among clients. The plan also outlines the way in which issues involving the patients can be handled (Aubrey, 43-67). To warrant constancy with the dream and mission statement and service strategy, frequent checks

Environmental Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Environmental Science - Essay Example ng energy saver bulbs at home instead of tube lights for most of the time; putting off microwave and television instead of putting them on standby mode; using water bottles that are reusable; purchasing a car that has more mileage on gas; composting my grass clippings instead of putting them in plastic bags and throwing them away; turning off extra lights at night and also during the day; and, reusing things like office papers and clothes. I have also decided to plant a tree somewhere, every year. This will help the environment go greener, making it sustainable. I want to adopt these things because I want to make my environment stable, and want to make the best use of natural resources. I want to do so because I have understood the importance of sustainable environment. Hence, my journal writing has invoked sustainable thinking within me, which is good not only for the environment, but also for me as a living

Discover different ways of approaching nutrition, how it impacts our Research Paper

Discover different ways of approaching nutrition, how it impacts our daily lives and what choices we can make to improve our health and our world - Research Paper Example ing, various health related predicaments such as high cholesterol levels that is responsible for unhealthy heart condition which may lead to high blood pressure and stroke, cancers of various tissues and organs, deformity of bones due to excessive body weight, osteoporosis, hypoglycemia even after consuming the food, anemia, diabetes, stones in kidney or gallbladder, ulcers in various parts of body, multiple sclerosis and asthma could be prevented. The reader is bound to change the eating habit from non-vegetarian diet to healthy vegetarian diet. The book highlights the importance of vegetarian diet intake by focusing on issues that arise due to social, economical and personal quandary due to ill-health. Human beings must care for other inhabitants of the planet by avoiding non-vegetarian diet, this is a step towards healthy life. The author gave utmost importance to the vegetarian diet to lead a happy and contented life and grow to be healthy grandparents free from health dilemmas. The author wrote that it is the prime responsibility of every individual to create an environment that is healthy for coming generations too which is possible by consuming eatables that initiate good health. The book selected is "Diet for a New America" by John Robbins. The book is selected as it provides a new insight to the Americans about their diet and diet style and generates concern about the environment and its conservation; animals and their protection for ethical and moral reasons. The book is carefully and methodologically written and American diet is well researched. The author took efforts to understand the imperative issue as non-vegetarian diet generates health hazards , non-vegetarian nutrition is poorly appreciated in actual sense. People eat what is pleasing to tongue and do not realize to eat what is good to keep them fit and healthy in all senses. John Robbins (D.O.B= 26/10/1947), author from America. He is a son of Irma and Baskin Robbins who run an ice-cream

USA Patriot Act Essay Example for Free

USA Patriot Act Essay Patriot Act is also commonly known as the USA patriot Act. It is a controversial act of the parliament that became a law of the United States in 26th October 2001 after George Bush the president appended his signature. USA PATRIOT ACT is an acronym for Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act. The act was in response to the September 11, 2001 terrorism attacks that were targeted at the US pentagon and the World Trade Centre (WTO). These attacks led to the US congress to enact anti terrorism bills which finally came to be known as the Anti Terrorism Act of 2001. This is a complex law that incorporates many provisions for example it addresses the issue of financing terrorism, interception of phones and emails to control terrorism and detention and deportation of immigrants linked with acts of terrorism. This research paper will keenly focus on the Act itself and it will conduct on intensive and extensive research to know the issues that it addresses. It will also define the term terrorism as it is defined by various institutions and authors. Terrorism could be defined to as the systematic use of threats as a method of achieving ones objectives. It is a course of action that is taken by either rebel group within a country or by one country against the other like in the case of Afghanistan and Iraq against US. Its objective is to instill fear in people so that their (Terrorists) selfish demands would be met for example like the demands that are issued by the Al Qaeda network which is believed to be headed by the most wanted person in America Osama Bin Laden of US to stop giving any form of assistance to Israel. Terrorism also includes unlawful acts of war and violence. According to the United States Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), terrorism could be termed as use of violence or force against another person with intent to intimidate or force obedience to a particular course of action. As mentioned here above, terrorism could be classified into two categories: domestic and international. This kind of violence is perpetrated by a group within the US without any directions from outside while international terrorism could be defined to as domestic terrorism whereas international terrorism could be defined to as dangerous acts of violence that are deemed to be a violation of the US criminal laws whose main goal is to coerce or intimidate the population or the government to influence a certain policy for example most terrorists often use bomb threats, death threats to the kidnapped individuals or even assassination of high profiled figures in the government. This is why the US patriot act was formed so as to address all these issues that are associated or linked with terrorism and make United States a better and safer place to live in. It was passed in response to the September 11th attacks which were leveled to the US population by terrorist groups. In fact it took only forty five days to hatch and nurture the Patriot Act. This Act proved not to be thorough and conclusive and became subject to amendments because it had many flaws that needed to be readdressed. The Act aimed at suppressing all acts of aggression or dissent in the United States of America and that was why the country launched an attack against immigrants originating from South Asian countries, Muslims and Arabs as they were believed to pose threats to the Americans. With the powers given by the act, a lot of people were arrested after the September 11th, 2001 attacks but it is only those that were believed to be linked to terrorism were apprehended. The act added power to the law enforcers for example it gave them powers to intercept phone calls, emails and any other communication made via the internet. It also allowed all financial, medical and any other records that could be of importance in the fight against terrorism. Patriot Act also authorized the secretary of the treasury to regulate and monitor all financial transactions conducted by suspected individuals on understanding that those transactions could be geared towards financing acts of terrorism. (Rackow 1655) Thorough the Patriot Act, the immigration department laws of the United States were strengthened by giving it the mandate to arrest and deport any individual immigrant connected or involved in the acts of terrorism against Americans. The Act on understanding that terrorism is not only perpetrated by groups or countries outside America, it expanded its definition of terrorism to encompass even domestic terrorism. Therefore it gave powers to the local law enforcers the mandate to investigate, track and arrest the local people suspected of perpetrating terrorism acts. Also, the federal investigation bureau’s technical support centre is to be funded and it should be given any military assistance it may require if there is need and be provided with weapons of mass destruction if they are requested by the Attorney General of the United States. It addresses how electronic anti terrorism moves should be conducted. It is also in this chapter that it is generally acknowledged that Muslim Americans, Arab American and Americans who are from Asia are just like any other American citizens and they play a vital role in the development of the country. For this reason any acts of discrimination directed towards them were condemned but this was after the original provision elicited a nation wide outcry due to discrimination of these people. This issue was addressed due to the misconception that arose after the attack that these groups were terrorists and therefore they were harassed by police without any reason. This forced them to change their cultural and religious ways of life for example Arab Muslims changed their mode of dressing to avoid being targeted by the law enforcers. Rackow 1658-61) In the same chapter on section 106, the presidential authority is addressed. The president of the United States is empowered by the Act to direct the confiscation of properties and assets of any foreign country, organization or person who have been established by the investigations to have been involved or participated in any way towards attacks on the United States of America. Title II of the patriotic Act deals with surveillance procedures and addresses all forms of surveillance conducted in response to terrorism. It is here that most of the opposition against this Act lies. It allowed the foreign intelligence department to gather any information that could help in the tracking of terrorists be acquired whether from the United States or from outside its boundaries. Under this title, surveillance of wire networks were expanded so as to encompass information routing to enable packets of switched networks to be screened. Here the judges were also given the mandate to allow this surveillance to be conducted whenever need arose. The FBI’s apart from doing wire taps or interceptions, they were to access and listen to voicemails using search warrants. Communication organizations were also allowed to disclose communications that may have been made by terrorists. The FBI’s were also given powers to monitor internet communication so that emails sent by terrorists could be intercepted and action taken before it is too late. This was not done with intentions of disclosing any private information but the main objective was to control terrorists who might be involved in such acts. Rackow 1662) The Act was passed in a time when the United States was in desperate need of such a move and as the saying goes; desperate times call for desperate measures. It became a law within the first forty five days. It passed through the two congress houses with a landslide and without any division between the Republicans and Democrats. Despite its good perceived objectives and strong support it got from the congressmen, it elicited some criticisms from different groups for interference with the civil liberties of the citizens. To be specific these criticisms have been directed on the provision that allows immigrants thought to be linked to terrorism be arrested and deported. The search laws have also been criticized where officers entrusted with the law enforcement search homes and business premises without seeking for permission from the owner. They could also conduct these searches without the knowledge of the occupant and this is a total breach of the privacy rights. (Jaeger P. T. and Burnett. G. 467-469) Another provision of the Act that has been widely criticized is that one which allows the interception of internet communications such as emails and the screening of phone calls made by individuals who are suspected to have links with terrorism. This is a denial to the confidentiality and privacy rights. Through the Patriot Act, law enforcers are also given free access to people’s financial and business records so that they would be perused to see whether one could have been financing terrorist activities or not. What angers these people most is the fact that the laws enforcers do not even look for court orders to allow them to conduct their investigations and searches so, most of these searches are impromptu and are conducted in a manner similar or close to the way terrorists conduct their businesses. Due to these complains, several amendments have been made by the federal courts and it was agreed that some of these clauses were unconstitutional and for that reason they needed to be revised. The US Patriot Act is structured and arranged using titles and sub titles. Title one of the patriot act deals with enhancement of domestic security against terrorism. This one consists of six sections and addresses how terrorism can effectively be controlled for example by increasing the funding meant to counter terrorism acts. Under title three the issue of money laundering is addressed. It is geared toward controlling, prevent and prosecute and those that are involved in money laundering as well as financing terrorism. According to the federal law, money laundering is defined as the transfer or flow of cash with an aim of funding terrorism. The federal agencies achieve their end through forfeiture, criminal sanctions and regulations. This act authorizes the secretary of the treasury to monitor any foreign relations with its financial institutions. (Rackow 1667) Documents and transactions files from regions believed to be linked with terrorism are to be securely stored. If any money transaction according to this act is established to have terrorism acts, the said beneficiary of this money is to forfeit it. Importation of ammunitions and fire arms contrary to the law are also addressed and the penalties for the same are clearly defined.