Russell-Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge

Pg1Pg1 KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE I53 Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description Bertrand Russell Russell, Bertrand (1917). Knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 1910-1911. Reprinted in his his Mysticism and Logic (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. : 1917). Reprinted Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes & Noble Books, 1951, pp. 152-167. Pagination here matches the latter. ) THE object of the following paper is to consider what it is that we know in cases where we know propositions about ‘the so-and-so' without knowing who or what the so-and-so is.For example, I know that the candidate who gets most votes will be elected, though I do not know who is the candidate who will get most votes. The problem I wish to consider is: What do we know in these cases, where the subject is merely described ? I have considered this problem elsewhere1 from a purely logical point of view; but in what follows I wish to consider the questio n in relation to theory of knowledge as well as in relation to logic, and in view of the above-mentioned logical discussions, I shall in this paper make the logical portion as brief as possible.In order to make clear the antithesis between ‘acquaintance' and ‘description', I shall first of all try to explain what I mean by ‘acquain- tance'. I say that I am acquainted with an object when I have a direct cognitive relation to that object, i. e. when I am directly aware of the object itself. When I speak of a cognitive relation here, I do not mean the sort of relation which constitutes judgment, but the sort which constitutes presentation. In fact, I think the relation of subject and object which I call acquaintance is simply the converse of the relation of object and subject which constitutes presentation.That is, to say that S has acquaintance with O is essentially the same thing as to say that O is presented to S. But the associations and natural extensions of the word acquaintance are different from those of the word presentation. To begin with, as in most cognitive words, it is natural to say that I am acquainted with an object even at moments when it is not actually before my mind, provided it has been before my mind, and will be again whenever occasion arises. This is the same sense in which I am said to know that 2+2=4 even when I am thinking of something else. In the second place, the word See references later. acquaintance is designed to emphasize, more than the word presen- tation, the relational character of the fact with which we are concerned. There is, to my mind, a danger that, in speaking of presentation, we may so emphasize the object as to lose sight of the subject. The result of this is either to lead to the view that there is no subject, whence we arrive at materialism; or to lead to the view that what is presented is part of the subject, whence we arrive at idealism, and should arrive at solipsism but for the most desperate contortions.Now I wish to preserve the dualism of subject and object in my terminology, because this dualism seems to me a fundamental fact concerning cognition. Hence I prefer the word acquaintance, because it emphasizes the need of a subject which is acquainted. When we ask what are the kinds of objects with which we are acquainted, the first and most obvious example is sense-data. When I see a colour or hear a noise, I have direct acquaintance with the colour or the noise. The sense-datum with which I am acquainted in these cases is generally, if not always, complex.This is particularly obvious in the case of sight. I do not mean, of course, merely that the supposed physical object is complex, but that the direct sensible object is complex and contains parts with spatial relations. Whether it is possible to be aware of a complex without being aware of its constituents is not an easy question, but on the whole it would seem that there is no reason why it should not be possible. T his question arises in an acute form in connection with self-consciousness, which we must now briefly consider.In introspection, we seem to be immediately aware of varying complexes, consisting of objects in various cognitive and conative relations to ourselves. When I see the sun, it often happens that I am aware of my seeing the sun, in addition to being aware of the sun; and when I desire food, it often happens that I am aware of my desire for food. But it is hard to discover any state of mind in which I am aware of myself alone, as opposed to a complex of which I am a constituent. The question of the nature of self-consciousness is too large, and too slightly connected with our subject, to be argued at length here.It is difficult, but probably not impossible, to account for plain facts if we assume that we do not have acquaintance with ourselves. It is plain that we are not only acquainted with the complex ‘Self-acquainted-with-A', but we also know the proposition ‘I am acquainted with A'. Now here the complex has been analysed, and if ‘I' does not stand for something which is a direct object of acquaintance, we shall have to suppose that ‘I' is something known by description. If we wished to maintain the view that there is noPg2Pg2 154 MYSTICISM AND LOGIC acquaintance with Self, we might argue as follows: We are acquainted with acquaintance, and we know that it is a relation. Also we are acquainted with a complex in which we perceive that acquaintance is the relating relation. Hence we know that this complex must have a constituent which is that which is acquainted, i. e. must have a subject- term as well as an object-term. This subject-term we define as ‘I'. Thus ‘I' means ‘the subject-term in awarenesses of which / am aware'.But as a definition this cannot be regarded as a happy effort. It would seem necessary, therefore, either to suppose that I am acquainted with myself, and that ‘I', therefore, requires no definition, being merely the proper name of a certain object, or to find some other analysis of self- consciousness. Thus self-consciousness cannot be regarded as throwing light on the question whether we can know a complex without knowing its constituents. This question, however, is not important for our present purposes, and I hall therefore not discuss it further. The awarenesses we have considered so far have all been aware- nesses of particular existents, and might all in a large sense be called sense-data. For, from the point of view of theory of knowledge, introspective knowledge is exactly on a level with knowledge derived from sight or hearing. But, in addition to awareness of the above kind of objects, which may be called awareness of particulars, we have also (though not quite in the same sense) what may be called awareness of universals.Awareness of universals is called conceiving, and a uni- versal of which we are aware is called a concept. Not only are we aware of particular yellows, but if we have seen a sufficient number of yellows and have sufficient intelligence, we are aware of the universal yellow; this universal is the subject in such judgments as ‘yellow differs from blue' or ‘yellow resembles blue less than green does'. And the universal yellow is the predicate in such judgments as ‘this is yellow', where ‘this' is a particular sense-datum.And universal relations, too, are objects of awarenesses; up and down, before and after, resemblance, desire, awareness itself, and so on, would seem to be all of them objects of which we can be aware. In regard to relations, it might be urged that we are never aware of the universal relation itself, but only of complexes in which it is a constituent. For example, it may be said that we do not know directly such a relation as before, though we understand such a proposition as ‘this is before that', and may be directly aware of such a complex as ‘this being before that'.This view, however, is difficult to reconcile with the fact that we often know propositions in which KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE I55 the relation is the subject, or in which the relata are not definite given objects, but ‘anything'. For example, we know that if one thing is before another, and the other before a third, then the first is before the third; and here the things concerned are not definite things, but ‘anything'. It is hard to see how we could know such a fact about ‘before' unless we were acquainted with ‘before', and not merely with actual particular cases of ne given object being before another given object. And more directly: A judgment such as ‘this is before that', where this judgment is derived from awareness of a complex, constitutes an analysis, and we should not understand the analysis if we were not acquainted with the meaning of the terms employed. Thus we must suppose that we are acquainted with the meaning of ‘before' , and not merely with instances of it. There are thus at least two sorts of objects of which we are aware, namely, particulars and universals.Among particulars I include all existents, and all complexes of which one or more constituents are existents, such as this-before-that, this-above-that, the-yellowness-of- this. Among universals I include all objects of which no particular is a constituent. Thus the disjunction ‘universal-particular' includes all objects. We might also call it the disjunction ‘abstract concrete'. It is not quite parallel with the opposition ‘concept-percept', because things remembered or imagined belong with particulars, but can hardly be called percepts. On the other hand, universals with which we are acquainted may be identified with concepts. ) It will be seen that among the objects with which we are acquainted are not included physical objects (as opposed to sense-data), nor other people's minds. These things are known to us by what I cal l ‘knowledge by description', which we must now consider. By a ‘description' I mean any phrase of the form ‘a so-and-so' or ‘the so-and-do'. A phrase of the form ‘a so-and-so' I shall call an ‘ambiguous' description; a phrase of the form ‘the so-and-do' (in the singular) I shall call a ‘definite' description.Thus ‘a man' is an ambiguous description, and ‘the man with the iron mask' is a definite description. There are various problems connected with ambiguous descriptions, but I pass them by, since they do not directly concern the matter I wish to discuss. What I wish to discuss is the nature of our knowledge concerning objects in cases where we know that there is an object answering to a definite description, though we are not acquainted with any such object. This is a matter which is concerned exclusively with definite descriptions.I shall, therefore, in the sequel, speak simply of ‘descriptions' when I mean Pg3Pg3 I56MYSTICISM AND LOGIC ‘definite descriptions'. Thus a description will mean any phrase of the form ‘the so-and-so' in the singular. I shall say that an object is ‘known by description' when we know that it is ‘the so-and-so', i. e. when we know that there is one object, and no more, having a certain property; and it will generally be implied that we do not have knowledge of the same object by acquaintance.We know that the man with the iron mask existed, and many propositions are known about him; but we do not know who he was. We know that the candidate who gets most votes will be elected, and in this case we are very likely also acquainted (in the only sense in which one can be acquainted with someone else) with the man who is, in fact, the candidate who will get most votes, but we do not know which of the candidates he is, i. e. we do not know any proposition of the form ‘A is the candidate who will get most votes' where A is one of the candidates by name.We shall say that we have â€Å"merely descriptive knowledge' of the so-and-so when, although we know that the so-and-so exists, and although we may possibly be acquainted with the object which is, in fact, the so-and-so, yet we do not know any proposition ‘a is the so- and-so', where a is something with which we are acquainted. When we say ‘the so-and-so exists', we mean that there is just one object which is the so-and-so. The proposition ‘a is the so-and-so' means that a has the property so-and-so, and nothing else has. Sir Joseph Larmor is the Unionist candidate' means ‘Sir Joseph Larmor is a Unionist candidate, and no one else is. ‘ ‘The Unionist candidate exists' means ‘someone is a Unionist candidate, and no one else is. ‘ Thus, when we are acquainted with an object which we know to be the so- and-so, we know that the so-and-so exists, but we may know that the so-and-so exists when we are not acquainted with any object whi ch we know to be the so-and-so, and even when we are not acquainted with any object which, in fact, is the so-and-so. Common words, even proper names, are usually really descriptions.That is to say, the thought in the mind of a person using a proper name correctly can generally only be expressed explicitly if we replace the proper name by a description. Moreover, the description required to express the thought will vary for different people, or for the same person at different times. The only thing constant (so long as the name is rightly used) is the object to which the name applies. But so long as this remains constant, the particular description involved usually makes no difference to the truth or falsehood of the proposition in which the name appears.Let us take some illustrations. Suppose some statement made KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE I57 about Bismarck. Assuming that there is such a thing as direct acquaintance with oneself, Bismarck himself might have used his name directly to designate the particular person with whom he was acquainted. In this case, if he made a judgment about himself, he himself might be a constituent of the judgment. Here the proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply standing for a certain object, and not for a description of the object.But if a person who knew Bismarck made a judgment about him, the case is different. What this person was acquainted with were certain sense-data which he connected (rightly, we will suppose) with Bismarck's body. His body as a physical object, and still more his mind, were only known as the body and the mind connected with these sense-data. That is, they were known by description. It is, of course, very much a matter of chance which characteristics of a man's appearance will come into a friend's mind when he thinks of him; thus the description actually in the friend's mind is accidental.The essential point is that he knows that the various descriptions all apply to the sa me entity, in spite of not being acquainted with the entity in question. When we, who did not know Bismarck, make a judgment about him, the description in our minds will probably be some more or less vague mass of historical knowledge—? far more, in most cases, than is required to identify him. But, for the sake of illustration, let us assume that we think of him as ‘the first Chancellor of the German Empire'. Here all the words are abstract except ‘German'.The word ‘German' will again have different meanings for different people. To some it will recall travels in Germany, to some the look of Germany on the map, and so on. But if we are to obtain a description which we know to be applicable, we shall be compelled, at some point, to bring in a reference to a particular with which we are acquainted. Such reference is involved in any mention of past, present, and future (as opposed to definite dates), or of here and there, or of what others have told us.Thus it would seem that, in some way or other, a description known to be applicable to a particular must involve some reference to a particular with which we are acquainted, if our knowledge about the thing described is not to be merely what follows logically from the description. For example, ‘the most long-lived of men' is a description which must apply to some man, but we can make no judgments concerning this man which involve knowledge about him beyond what the description gives.If, however, we say, ‘the first Chancellor of the German Empire was an astute diplomatist', we can only be assured Pg4Pg4 158MYSTICISM AND LOGIC of the truth of our judgment in virtue of something with which we are acquainted—? usually a testimony heard or read. Considered psychologically, apart from the information we convey to others, apart from the fact about the actual Bismarck, which gives importance to our judgment, the thought we really have contains the one or more particulars involve d, and otherwise consists wholly of concepts.All names of places—? London, England, Europe, the earth, the Solar System—? similarly involve, when used, descriptions which start from some one or more particulars with which we are acquainted. I suspect that even the Universe, as considered by metaphysics, involves such a connection with particulars. In logic, on the contrary, where we are concerned not merely with what does exist, but with whatever might or could exist or be, no reference to actual particulars is involved.It would seem that, when we make a statement about something only known by description, we often intend to make our statement, not in the form involving the description, but about the actual thing described. That is to say, when we say anything about Bismarck, we should like, if we could, to make the judgment which Bismarck alone can make, namely, the judgment of which he himself is a constituent. In this we are necessarily defeated, since the actual Bi smarck is unknown to us.But we know that there is an object B called Bismarck, and that B was an astute diplomatist. We can thus describe the proposition we should like to affirm, namely, ‘B was an astute diplomatist', where B is the object which was Bismarck. What enables us to communicate in spite of the varying descriptions we employ is that we know there is a true proposition concerning the actual Bismarck, and that, however we may vary the description (so long as the description is correct), the proposition described is still the same.This proposition, which is described and is known to be true, is what interests us; but we are not acquainted with the proposition itself, and do not know it, though we know it is true. It will be seen that there are various stages in the removal from acquaintance with particulars: there is Bismarck to people who knew him, Bismarck to those who only know of him through history, the man with the iron mask, the longest-lived of men. These are progressively further removed from acquaintance with particulars, and there is a similar hierarchy in the region of universals.Many universals, like many particulars, are only known to us by description. But here, as in the case of particulars, knowledge concerning what is known by description is ultimately reducible to knowledge concerning what is known by acquaintance. KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE 159 The fundamental epistemological principle in the analysis of propositions containing descriptions is this: Every proposition which we can understand must be composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted.From what has been said already, it will be plain why I advocate this principle, and how I propose to meet the case of propositions which at first sight contravene it. Let us begin with the reasons for supposing the principle true. The chief reason for supposing the principle true is that it seems scarcely possible to believe that we can make a judgment or entertain a supp osition without knowing what it is that we are judging or supposing about. If we make a judgment about (say) Julius Caesar, it is plain that the actual person who was Julius Caesar is not a constituent of the judgment.But before going further, it may be well to explain what I mean when I say that this or that is a constituent of a judgment, or of a proposition which we understand. To begin with judgments: a judgment, as an occurrence, I take to be a relation of a mind to several entities, namely, the entities which compose what is judged. If, e. g. I judge that A loves B, the judgment as an event consists in the existence, at a certain moment, of a specific four-term relation, called judging, between me and A and love and B.That is to say, at the time when I judge, there is a certain complex whose terms are myself and A and love and B, and whose relating relation is judging. My reasons for this view have been set forth elsewhere,1 and I shall not repeat them here. Assuming this view of judgment, the constituents of the judgment are simply the constituents of the complex which is the judgment- Thus, in the above case, the constituents are myself and A and love and B and judging. But myself and judging are constituents shared by all my judgments; thus the distinctive constituents of the particular judgment in question are A and love and B.Coming now to what is meant by ‘understanding a proposition', I should say that there is another relation possible between me and A and love and B, which is called my supposing that A loves B. 2 When we can suppose that A loves B, we ‘understand the proposition' A loves B. Thus we often understand a proposition in cases where we have not enough knowledge to make a judgment. 1 Philosophical Essays, ‘The Nature of Truth. ‘ I have been persuaded by Mr Wittgenstein that this theory is somewhat unduly simple, but the modification which I believe it to require does not affect the above argument [1917]. Cf. Mei nong, Ueber Annahmen, passim. I formerly supposed, contrary to Meinong's view, that the relationship of supposing might be merely that of presentation. In this view I now think I was mistaken, and Meinong is right. But my present view depends upon the theory that both in judgment and in assumption there is no single Objective, but the several constituents of the judgment or asaumption are in a many-term relation to the mind. Pg5Pg5 160MYSTICISM AND LOGIC Supposing, like judging, is a many-term relation, of which a mind is one term.The other terms of the relation are called the constituents of the proposition supposed. Thus the principle which I enunciated may be re-stated as follows: Whenever a relation of supposing or judging occurs, the terms to which the supposing or judging mind is related by the relation of supposing or judging must be terms with which the mind in question is acquainted. This is merely to say that we cannot make a judgment or a supposition without knowing what it is that we are making our judgment or supposition about.It seems to me that the truth of this principle is evident as soon as the principle is understood; I shall, therefore, in what follows, assume the principle, and use it as a guide in analysing judgments that contain descriptions. Returning now to Julius Caesar, I assume that it will be admitted that he himself is not a constituent of any judgment which I can make. But at this point it is necessary to examine the view that judgments are composed of something called ‘ideas', and that it is the ‘idea' of Julius Caesar that is a constituent of my judgment.I believe the plausibility of this view rests upon a failure to form a right theory of descriptions. We may mean by my ‘idea' of Julius Caesar the things that I know about him, e. g. that he conquered Gaul, was assassinated on the Ides of March, and is a plague to schoolboys. Now I am admitting, and indeed contending, that in order to discover what is actually in my mind when I judge about Julius Caesar, we must substitute for the proper name a description made up of some of the things I know about him. (A description which will often serve to express my thought is ‘the man whose name wasJulius Caesar. ‘ For whatever else I may have forgotten about him, it is plain that when I mention him I have not forgotten that that was his name. ) But although I think the theory that judgments consist of ideas may have been suggested in some such way, yet I think the theory itself is fundamentally mistaken. The view seems to be that there is some mental existent which may be called the ‘idea' of something outside the mind of the person who has the idea, and that, since judgment is a mental event, its constituents must be constituents of the mind of the person judging.But in this view ideas become a veil between us and outside things—? we never really, in knowledge, attain to the things we are supposed to be knowing about, but only to the ideas of those things. The relation of mind, idea, and object, on this view, is utterly obscure, and, so far as I can see, nothing discoverable by inspection warrants the intrusion of the idea between the mind and the object. I suspect that the view ii fostered by the dislike of relations, and that it is felt the mindKNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCEl6l could not know objects unless there were something ‘in' the mind which could be called the state of knowing the object. Such a view, however, leads at once to a vicious endless regress, since the relation of idea to object will have to be explained by supposing that the idea itself has an idea of the object, and so on ad infinitum. I therefore see no reason to believe that, when we are acquainted with an object, there is in us something which can be called the ‘idea' of the object.On the contrary, I hold that acquaintance is wholly a relation, not demanding any such constituent of the mind as is supposed by advocates of ‘ideas'. This is, of course, a large question, and one which would take us far from our subject if it were adequately discussed. I therefore content myself with the above indications, and with the corollary that, in judging, the actual objects concerning which we judge, rather than any supposed purely mental entities, are constituents of the complex which is the judgment.When, therefore, I say that we must substitute for ‘Julius Caesar' some description of Julius Caesar, in order to discover the meaning of a judgment nominally about him, I am not saying that we must substitute an idea. Suppose our description is ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar'. Let our judgment be ‘Julius Caesar was assassinated'. Then it becomes ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar was assassinated'. Here Julius Caesar is a noise or shape with which we are acquainted, and all the other constituents of the judgment (neglecting the tense in ‘was') are concepts with whic h we are acquainted.Thus our judgment is wholly reduced to constituents with which we are acquainted, but Julius Caesar himself has ceased to be a constituent of our judgment. This, however, requires a proviso, to be further explained shortly, namely, that ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar' must not, as a whole, be a constituent of our judgment, that is to say, this phrase must not, as a whole, have a meaning which enters into the judgment. Any right analysis of the judgment, therefore, must break up this phrase, and not treat it as a subordinate complex which is part of the judgment.The judgment ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar was assassinated' may be interpreted as meaning ‘one and only one man was called Julius Caesar, and that one was assassinated'. Here it is plain that there is no constituent corresponding to the phrase, ‘the man whose name was Julius Caesar'. Thus there is no reason to regard this phrase as expressing a constituent of the jud gment, and we have seen that this phrase must be broken up if we are to be acquainted with all the constituents of the judgment. This conclusion, which we have reached from considerations concerned with the theory of knowledge, is also forced uponPg6Pg6 162MYSTICISM AND LOGIC us by logical considerations, which must now be briefly reviewed. It is common to distinguish two aspects, meaning and denotation, in such phrases as ‘the author of Waverley'. The meaning will be a certain complex} consisting (at least) of authorship and Waverley with some relation] the denotation will be Scott. Similarly ‘feather-less bipeds' will have a complex meaning, containing as constituents the presence of two feet and the absence of feathers, while its denotation will be the class of men.Thus when we say ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' or ‘men are the same as featherless bipeds', we are asserting an identity of denotation, and this assertion is worth making because of the dive rsity of meaning. 1 I believe that the duality of meaning and denotation, though capable of a true interpretation, is misleading if taken as fundamental. The denotation, I believe, is not a constituent of the proposition, except in the case of proper names, i. e. of words which do not assign a property to an object, but merely and solely name it.And I should hold further that, in this sense, there are only two words which are strictly proper names of particulars, namely, T and ‘this. ‘2 One reason for not believing the denotation to be a constituent of the proposition is that we may know the proposition even when we are not acquainted with the denotation. The proposition ‘the author of Waverley is a novelist' was known to people who did not know that ‘the author of Waverley' denoted Scott. This reason has been already sufficiently emphasized.A second reason is that propositions concerning ‘the so-and-so' are possible even when ‘the so-and-so' has no denotation. Take, e. g. ‘the golden mountain does not exist' or ‘the round square is self- contradictory'. If we are to preserve the duality of meaning and denotation, we have to say, with Meinong, that there are such objects as the golden mountain and the round square, although these objects do not have being. We even have to admit that the existent round square is existent, but does not exist. 3 Meinong does not regard this as a contradition, but I fail to see that it is not one.Indeed, it seems to me evident that the judgment ‘there is no such object as the round square' does not presuppose that there is such an object. If this is admitted, however, we are led to the conclusion that, by parity of form, no judgment concerning ‘the so-and-so' actually involves the so-and-so as a constituent. 1 This view has been recently advocated by Miss E. E. C. Jones. ‘A New Law of Thought and its Implications,' Mind, January, 1911. * I should now exclude ‘ I' from proper names in the strict sense, and retain only ‘this' [1917]. †¢? Meinongj Ueber Annahmen, 2nd ed. , Leipzig, 1910, p. 141. KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE 163Miss Jones1 contends that there is no difficulty in admitting contradictory predicates concerning such an object as ‘the present King of France', on the ground that this object is in itself contradictory. Now it might, of course, be argued that this object, unlike the round square, is not self-contradictory, but merely non-existent. This, however, would not go to the root of the matter. The real objection to such an argument is that the law of contradiction ought not to be stated in the traditional form ‘A is not both B and not B', but in the form ‘no proposition is both true and false*.The traditional form only applies to certain propositions, namely, to those which attribute a predicate to a subject. When the law is stated of propositions, instead of being stated concerning subjects and pred icates it is at once evident that propositions about the present King of France or the round square can form no exception, but are just as incapable of being both true and false as other propositions. Miss Jones2 argues that ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' asserts identity of denotation between Scott and the author of Waverley.But there is some difficulty in choosing among alternative meanings of this contention. In the first place, it should be observed that the author of Waverley is not a mere name, like Scott. Scott is merely a noise or shape conventionally used to designate a certain person; it gives us no information about that person, and has nothing that can be called meaning as opposed to denotation. (I neglect the fact, considered above, that even proper names, as a rule, really stand for descriptions. But the author of Waverley is not merely conventionally a name for Scott; the element of mere convention belongs here to the separate words, the and author and of and Waverley. Given what these words stand for, the author of Waverley is no longer arbitrary. When it is said that Scott is the author of Waverley, we are not stating that these are two names for one man, as we should be if we said ‘Scott is Sir Walter'. A man's name is what he is called, but however much Scott had been called the author of Waverley, that would not have made im be the author; it was necessary for him actually to write Waverley, which was a fact having nothing to do with names. If, then, we are asserting identity of denotation, we must not mean by denotation the mere relation of a name to the thing named. In fact, it would be nearer to the truth to say that the meaning of ‘Scott' is the denotation of ‘the author of Waverley'. The relation of ‘Scott* to Scott is that ‘Scott' means Scott, just as the relation of ‘author' to the concept which is so called is that ‘author' means this concept. 1 Mind, July, 1910, p. 80. ‘ Mind , July, 1910. p. 379. Pg7Pg7 164MYSTICISM AND LOGIC Thus if we distinguish meaning and denotation in ‘the author of Waverley', we shall have to say that ‘Scott' has meaning but not denotation. Also when we say ‘Scott is the author of Waverley', the meaning of ‘the author of Waverley' is relevant to our assertion. For if the denotation alone were relevant, any other phrase with the same denotation would give the same proposition. Thus ‘Scott is the author of Marmion' would be the same proposition as ‘Scott is the author of Waverley'.But this is plainly not the case, since from the first we learn that Scott wrote Marmion and from the second we learn that he wrote Waverley, but the first tells us nothing about Waverley and the second nothing about Marmion. Hence the meaning of ‘the author of Waverley' as opposed to the denotation, is certainly relevant to ‘Scott is the author of Waverley'. We have thus agreed that ‘the author of Wav erley' is not a mere name, and that its meaning is relevant in propositions in which it occurs.Thus if we are to say, as Miss Jones does, that ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' asserts an identity of denotation, we must regard the denotation of ‘the author of Waverley' as the denotation of what is meant by ‘the author of Waverley'. Let us call the meaning of ‘the author of Waverley' M. Thus M is what ‘the author of Waverley' means. Then we are to suppose that ‘Scott is the author of Waverley' means ‘Scott is the denotation of M But here we are explaining our proposition by another of the same form, and thus we have made no progress towards a real explanation. The denotation of M,' like ‘the author of Waverley', has both meaning and denotation, on the theory we are examining. If we call its meaning M', our proposition becomes ‘Scott is the denotation of M†. But this leads at once to an endless regress. Thus the attempt to re gard our proposition as asserting identity of denotation breaks down, and it becomes imperative to find some other analysis. When this analysis has been completed, we shall be able to reinterpret the phrase ‘identity of denotation', which remains obscure so long as it is taken as fundamental.The first point to observe is that, in any proposition about ‘the author of Waverley', provided Scott is not explicitly mentioned, the denotation itself, i. e. Scott, does not occur, but only the concept of denotation, which will be represented by a variable. Suppose we say ‘the author of Waverley was the author of Marmion', we are certainly not saying that both were Scott—? we may have forgotten that there was such a person as Scott. We are saying that there is some man who was the author of Waverley and the author of Marmion.That Is to say, there is someone who wrote Waverley and Marmion, and no one else wrote them. Thus the identity is that of a variable, i. e. of KNO WLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE 165 an identifiable subject, ‘someone'. This is why we can understand propositions about ‘the author of Waverley', without knowing who he was. When we say ‘the author of Waverley was a poet', we mean ‘one and only one man wrote Waverley, and he was a poet'; when we say ‘the author of Waverley was Scott' we mean ‘one and only one man wrote Waverley, and he was Scott'. Here the identity is between a variable, i. . an indeterminate subject (‘he'), and Scott; ‘the author of Waverley' has been analysed away, and no longer appears as a constituent of the proposition. 1 The reason why it is imperative to analyse away the phrase, ‘the author of Waverley' may be stated as follows. It is plain that when we say ‘the author of Waverley is the author of Marmion', the is expresses identity. We have seen also that the common denotation, namely Scott, is not a constituent of this proposition, while the meanings (if a ny) of ‘the author of Waverley' and ‘the author of Marmion' are not identical.We have seen also that, in any sense in which the meaning of a word is a constituent of a proposition in whose verbal expression the word occurs, ‘Scott' means the actual man Scott, in the same sense (so far as concerns our present discussion) in which ‘author' means a certain universal. Thus, if ‘the author of Waverley' were a subordinate complex in the above proposition, its meaning would have to be what was said to be identical with the meaning of ‘the author of Marmion'.This is plainly not the case; and the only escape is to say that ‘the author of Waverley' does not, by itself, have a meaning, though phrases of which it is part do have a meaning. That is, in a right analysis of the above proposition, ‘the author of Waverley' must disappear. This is effected when the above proposition is analysed as meaning: ‘Some one wrote Waverley and no one else did, and that someone also wrote Marmion and no one else did. ‘ This may be more simply expressed by saying that the propositional function ‘x wrote Waverley and Marmion, and no one else did' is capable of truth, i. e. ome value of x makes it true, but no other value does. Thus the true subject of our judgment is a propositional function, i. e. a complex containing an undetermined constituent, and becoming a proposition as soon as this constituent is determined. We may now define the denotation of a phrase. If we know that the proposition ‘a is the so-and-so' is true, i. e. that a is so-and-so and nothing else is, we call a the denotation of the phrase ‘the so- 1 The theory which I am advocating is set forth fully, with the logical grounds in its favour, in Principia Mathematica, Vol. I, Introduction, Chap.Ill; also, less fully, in Mind, October, 1905. Pg8Pg8 166 MYSTICISM AND LOGIC and-so'. A very great many of the propositions we naturally make about Ã¢â‚¬Ë œthe so-and-so' will remain true or remain false if we substitute a for ‘the so-and-so', where a is the denotation of ‘the so-and-so'. Such propositions will also remain true or remain false if we substitute for ‘the so-and-so' any other phrase having the same denotation. Hence, as practical men, we become interested in the denotation more than in the description, since the denotation decides as to the truth or falsehood of so many statements in which the description occurs.Moreover, as we saw earlier in considering the relations of description and acquaintance, we often wish to reach the denotation, and are only hindered by lack of acquaintance: in such cases the description is merely the means we employ to get as near as possible to the denotation. Hence it naturally comes to be supposed that the denotation is part of the proposition in which the description occurs. But we have seen, both on logical and on epistemological grounds, that this is an error.The actual object (if any) which is the denotation is not (unless it is explicitly mentioned) a constituent of propositions in which descriptions occur; and this is the reason why, in order to understand such propositions, we need acquaintance with the constituents of the description, but do not need acquaintance with its denotation. The first result of analysis, when applied to propositions whose grammatical subject is ‘the so-and-so', is to substitute a variable as subject; i. e. we obtain a proposition of the form: ‘There is something which alone is so-and-so, and that something is such-and-such. The further analysis of propositions concerning ‘the so-and-so' is thus merged in the problem of the nature of the variable, i. e. of the meanings of some, any, and all. This is a difficult problem, concerning which I do not intend to say anything at present. To sum up our whole discussion: We began by distinguishing two sorts of knowledge of objects, namely, knowledge by acquain tance and knowledge by description. Of these it is only the former that brings the object itself before the mind. We have acquaintance with sense-data, with many universals, and possibly with ourselves, but not with physical objects or other minds.We have descriptive knowledge of an object when we know that it is the object having some property or properties with which we are acquainted; that is so say, when we know that the property or properties in question belong to one object and no more, we are said to have knowledge of that one object by description, whether or not we are acquainted with the object. Our knowledge of physical objects and of other minds is only knowledge by description, the descriptions involved being usually KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE167 such as involve sense-data.All propositions intelligible to us, whether or not they primarily concern things only known to us by description, are composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted, for a constituent wi th which we are not acquainted is unintelligible to us. A judgment, we found, is not composed of mental constituents called ‘ideas', but consists of an occurrence whose constituents are a mind1 and certain objects, particulars or universals. (One at least must be a universal. ) When a judgment is rightly analysed, the objects which are constituents of it must all be objects with which the mind which is a constituent of it is acquainted.This conclusion forces us to analyse descriptive phrases occurring in propositions, and to say that the objects denoted by such phrases are not constituents of judgments in which such phrases occur (unless these objects are explicitly mentioned). This leads us to the view (recommended also on purely logical grounds) that when we say ‘the author of Marmion was the author of Waverley', Scott himself is not a constituent of our judgement, and that the judgment cannot be explained by saying that it affirms identity of denotation with diversity of meaning. It also, plainly, does not assert identity of meaning.Such judgments, therefore, can only be analysed by breaking up the descriptive phrases, introducing a variable, and making prepositional functions the ultimate subjects. In fact, ‘the so-and-so is such-and-such' will mean that fx is so-and-so and nothing else is, and x is such-and-such' is capable of truth. The analysis of such judgments involves many fresh problems, but the discussion of these problems is not undertaken in the present paper. 11 use this phrase merely to denote the something psychological which enters into judgment, without intending to prejudge the question as to what this

Meditation on Yellow by Olive Senior Essay

Olive Senior is a Jamaican poet who explores Caribbean history. Her poetry often conveys her displeasure of colonization and the suffering Caribbean people endured. Meditation on Yellow explores the colonization and exploitation process carried out by the Europeans. This poem strong conveys Senior discontentment as it relates to the exploitation of the land and the Amerindian tribe. It through the use of symbolism, language and repetition the brutality of colonization is conveyed. Symbolism is used to portray the harsh reality of colonization. In Meditation on Yellow â€Å"yellow† is symbolic of the innocence of the Amerindians and the purity in their mind and soul upon encountering the Whites. This is noted in the phrase † but we were peaceful then child-like in the yellow dawn of our innocence.† The fact that these Amerindians had no idea of what was to come their way and that they offered the best of what they had to the Europeans makes this encounter even more sad and advantageous. Furthermore, yellow is symbolic of sickness and infection. This is reflect in the minds of the Europeans as it was infected with the yearning for wealth and power. Due to this â€Å"infection† the Amerindian we turned into slaves, the land was exploited and the Europeans began colonization. The use of symbolism conveys the extremes which these two set of people existed, the Amerindian being kind and pure and the Europeans being cold-hearted and greedy. Senior’s use of language is certainly a powerful tool in expressing her displeasure as it relates to the enslavement of the Amerindians. Throughout the poem she uses sarcasm and humor which highlights her mocking and belittling of the Europeans. The phrase † had I known I would have brewed up some yellow fever grass and arsenic† is an example of sarcasm. In this phrase there is a contrast between the gesture of hospitality of ethnic which is the â€Å"fever grass† and the bitter sinister intentions of k illing the Europeans with the † arsenic poison.† The sarcasm continues in the phrase † despite the differences in our skins, our piss was exactly the same shade of yellow.† This highlights that regardless of ethnic and racial differences we are all the same. The striking, crude comparison stresses the need for equality and for readers to take note. Furthermore Olive Senior educates us that these Amerindian displayed passive resistance as they deliberately burnt the bread of the Europeans since they we treated badly. The phrase † for which management apologizes† certainly indicates they there was no remorse or sorry for these actions. The use of sarcasm highlight Senior’s hatred towards the colonization process and her view on the Europeans. Repetition is also used to place emphasis on the greedy and materialistic nature of the Europeans. This type of repetition is known as anaphora. The line † but it was gold in your mind gold in your eyes gold in the crown .. gold the prize † highlights the obsession these Europeans had with gold and their gluttonous nature. Moreover, their unreasonable wants and desires are also highlighted through repetition. This is noted in the line † want it strong wan it long want it black want it black want it green want it dread.† Additionally there was repetition in the in line † silver was you armor silver the cross of your Lord †¦ silver the bullet I bite†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This repetition emphasizes the many different forms of silver and the destruction that the silver symbolizes . The silver was representative of Iron Age Technology and represents the European’s military superiority over the stone age Amerindians. Collectively the repetition of these lines alerts readers of the suffering these Amerindians endured to please the cold hearted Europeans. The use of these techniques clearly depicts Senior’s displeasure and the unfortunate struggles of colonization.

Inventory System Essay

Flipkart is a leading destination for online shopping in India, offering some of the best prices and a completely hassle-free experience with options of paying through Cash on Delivery, Debit Card,` Credit Card and Net Banking processed through secure and trusted gateways. Now shop for your favorite books, apparel, footwear, lifestyle accessories, baby care products, toys, posters, sports and fitness, mobile phones, laptops, cameras, movies, music, health and beauty, televisions, refrigerators, air-conditioners, washing machines, MP3 players and products from a host of other categories available. Some of the top selling electronic brands on the website are Samsung, HTC, Nokia, Dell, HP, Sony, Canon, Nikon, LG, Toshiba, Philips, Braun, Bajaj and Morphy Richards. Browse through our cool lifestyle accessories, apparel and footwear brands featured on our site with expert descriptions to help you arrive at the right buying decision. Flipkart also offers free home delivery for many of our products along with easy interest-free EMI options. Get the best prices and the best online shopping experience every time, guaranteed. EBay EBay is an Amerecan multinational internet consumer-toconsumer corporation, headquartered in San Jose, California.It was founded in 1995, and became a notable success story of the dot-com bubble; it is now a multi-billion dollar business with operations localized in over thirty countries. The company manages eBay.com, an online auction and shopping website in which people and businesses buy and sell a broad variety of goods and services worldwide. In addition to its auction-style selling, the website has since expanded to include â€Å"Buy It Now† standard shopping; shopping by UPC, ISBN, or other kind of SKU (via Half.com); online classified advertisements (via Kijiji or eBay Classifieds); online event ticket trading (via StubHub); online money transfers (via PayPal) and other services. Shop Clues ShopClues.com is an online retail website, headquartered in Gurgaon, India. The company was founded in the Silicon Valley, USA in the year 2011 by an alumnus of Washington University and renowned Wall Street internet analyst  Sandeep Aggarwal and eBay’s former Global Product Head, Sanjay Sethi. ShopClues was the first e-commerce website in India that operated on the ‘managed marketplace model. Over 12,000 registered merchants retail +2,000, 000 products on the ShopClues platform to over 42 million visitorsevery year across 9500 locationsin the country. As per the citation, ShopClues joined as 35th entrant in the Indian e-commerce in 2011 and is reported to have made its way to the list of the top 6 e-commerce destinations in the country. The company has employees over 350 people across locations. Lazada Philippines Lazada Philippines is an online shopping website from Rocket Internet GmbH, which is an international online business incubator established in 1999; founded by the Samwer Brothers namely Alexander, Mac and Oliver. Lazada Philippines provides a wide array of products like consumer electronics, home appliances, clothes, school supplies, and more. The website utilizes a secure online transaction model in order to protect the privacy and vital informationof users. It offers payment methods such as the use of credit card or debit card, cash on delivery, and Banco de Oro (BDO) credit card installment. It also entitles customers to manufacturers’ warranties and returns policy. The Lazada Android app was also launched for free to download on the Google Play Store in June 2013. Related Studies Paki research nala neu ha internet about eu related studies hine nga supply inventory system parehas hitun related literature na ada ha egbaw. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES Research Design Research Environment Historical Notes Location Research Procedures Research Instruments Research Respondents Statistical Treatment Paki basa la ngan pake intendi hine nga chapter III? Kailangan han eu groupo mag study hine nga research sitaution Halimbawa/Example: kun teacher eu research study, kailangan about teacher method la it ebutang nganhi. Sugad hit design,environment,procedures ngan instruments, respondents naada naka butang ha igbaw. pag download nala kamu para about hine nga method and procedures basta related hit eu system study.. CHAPTER IV Document of the Current System The document of current system uses manual process in all its transaction. Personnel en-charge uses a manual process in managing the stocks and inventory of the office supply. Inventory is sometimes not updated, and products are not verified on time. Time and effort consumed in verifying the exact number of products and the personnel en-charge has to browse the stock room to count manually. Figure 4 – Current System Manual Flowchart Hardware Setup(waray ku maisip na pasible ngada hit eyu hardware setup) Software and Application Used( anu it eu gamit na software application?) Document of the Proposed System The Supply Inventory System basically support the primary processes of the business’ transactions. Implementation of Supply Inventory System will initiate some changes in the work flow of the EVSU B University business transactions. The School has lots of computer parts to offer etc. Software Requirements The following software requirements will make the system operational: Microsoft Windows 7 or higher PHP 5.3.1 MySQL Cascading Style Sheet(CSS) Extensible Markup Language (XML) Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome Hardware Requirements Specification The proponents recommended the following to make the system operational: Computer Set(Server) -Speed 64 bit 4 cores or higher -Resolution 1024Ãâ€"768 -RAM 8 GB or higher -Hard disk 750 GB or higher Computer Set (Clients) -Speed 1.50 GHz -Resolution 1024Ãâ€"768 -RAM 512 MB or higher -Hard disk 40 GB or higher Internet Connection Automatic voltage regulator Router or switches Lan cable Today, web applications are playing important roles in present online business industry. We can see from online office supply, mobile showrooms management, electronic and other school facilities office are operated through online. There are online office supply websites which are most popular and bus and train ticket reservation related projects. Considering importance of online web business we designed Supply Inventory System where users can find products spare parts, latest school facilities in the office supply of University. Computerized methods are useful in making work accurate, reliable, efficient, and capable for a very systematic and fast access in item of the product, every ordering and purchasing product must be versatile to the current trends and innovation in today’s changes in technology.

What is the best way to educate the U.S. workforce Essay

What is the best way to educate the U.S. workforce - Essay Example workforce held jobs that did not require a college degree [Kangas, n.d.], indicating that there was glut of over qualified people at the top, as a result of which many of them are being displaced downwards, making it even more difficult for non-graduates to secure jobs. The welfare reform legislation which was signed into force in 1998, has introduced the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, that operates upon the principle of â€Å"work first† as opposed to the â€Å"training first† option that was in force before. A broad based training policy has proved to be difficult to implement, since the U.S. labor market is fragmented.[Carnevale, 1999]. Thus, the Workforce Investment Act was also introduced to reform the Government training programs for welfare recipients [Haittiangadi, 1998]. Prior to this, the School to Work opportunities Act of 1994 has introduced vocational and apprenticeship programs as a part of the high school curriculum [Schaffer, 1999]. Th is was first initiated in Broome County in 1990, in an effort to implement the German apprenticeship model in the United States school curriculum [Emanoil, 2001], and prepare students better to make the important transition from school to workplace. What is the best way to educate the U.S. workforce? The validity of traditional academic- based systems of education are being questioned as they produce students who are poorly equipped with the skills required at work, especially in today’s techno-savvy environment. They are distracted in class, working after school at low paying, part time jobs where everything of value is generally learnt within a short period of time and they stay on for purely financial reasons. However, the net result is that they remain stagnant at the low level jobs and rarely advance higher. The other side of the same coin is the â€Å"massification† of education with student base expansion since the 1980s [Alexander,

Information Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Information Systems - Essay Example stakeholders, implementing a better mitigation plan for potential risk and ensure that they clearly understand and support what the project should achieve. This report presents the detailed risk analysis, mitigation and recommendations for the new information technology based system implementation for the submission of personal tax returns at a large European country. In addition, this report will outline some of main and inflectional risks those can make this project a failure. In this scenario I will also recommend some of effective mitigation steps to effectively manage and handle this project. According to (Whitten, Bentley and Dittman), the current era is known as the age of information technology since the information technology is playing vital and major roles in almost every walk of life. Additionally, the business sector is also tremendously influenced and improved by the information technology. Furthermore, at the present, organizations have more effective and well-organized ways for performing business functions. Furthermore, to perform managerial tasks, the development and implementation of information systems have turned out to be essential task for almost every organization. Since, the accomplishment of the information systems in the organizations and corporate structures has provided many advantages and ROI (return on investment). However, at the present time, the information systems are strongly attached with business activities and management operations. Since, these systems are presenting a valuable return on the organizational data stored in these informati on systems. In addition, the development of the off-the-shelf information systems has presented various facilities to the business data and information handling. Thus, at the present, the information system is the main factor of the concentration for every organization (Whitten, Bentley and Dittman; Hutchinson and Sawyer). This report is about the implementation of new information system

Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

Response - Assignment Example Through twitter, facebook and other social media, people can post statements and share updates or reports where others could react, reject or affirm. In twitter, subscriber can use hashtags to immediately associate their thoughts with the rest of the community discussing the same. Any life-changing or historical event from other country can easily gain sympathy and reaction from the other part of the world when this is shared on social network. Mark Pfeifle, former national-security adviser, was right in his observation that without twitter, the people of Iran would not feel empowered to stand for freedom and democracy (Gladwell,, 2010). K. Glassman, a former senior State Department official expressed, facebook provide leverage for US-based security management (Gladwell,, 2010). But this is not just about security matter. The social network is larger than that. It bridge nations and hasten family communications, especially those who are working offshore. It also provides easy access of views for tourism sites and thus, provides interactive options where people could choose sites to visit in other parts of the world. It also bridge you to networks of people who are constantly involved in the study of society and the universe, hence, nurture such personal connection to civil rights movement and about the changes happening in the solar system. Indeed, it is a great source of information and a tool for enhancing participation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and of business expansion. The world now is just within the peoples fingertips. Thoughts and decision-makings, political or otherwise, can be sense and felt in just a click. The online social network can end discrimination, too. Gladwell, M. Small Change: Why the revolution will not be tweeted. Annals of Innovation, New Yorker, Conde Naste, California, 4 October 2010. Web. http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/10/04/101004fa_fact_gladwell Accessed: 12.December

Mamikon's Calculus Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mamikon's Calculus - Research Paper Example II. Description of Mamikon’s Approach Mamikon’s method utilized shapes in order to get his points across about the ways that calculus could be approached. According to Pritchard (2003), Mamikon Mnatsakanian came up with a visual method of solving calculus utilizing shapes, which befuddled the Soviets; later on, he got his Ph.D. in physics (pp. 38). Of course, giving students linear and curved objects would be just one way to demonstrate how a calculus problem is set up. According Tom Apostol and Mamikon Mnatsakanian’s article in Haunsperger (2007), â€Å"For centuries mathematicians have been interested in curves that can be constructed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pp. 120). Mamikon’s idea was that if young people—even very young children—could use manipulatables in order to see how shapes can form and change based on volume or linear adjustments, they would be able to innately understand principles that come directly from calculus. In this regard, it is so important to have exposure to complex math problems as early as possible in order to stimulate a child’s mind. This is not to say that very young students should be forming the geometry proofs proving energy equals mass times the speed of light squared. On the contrary, the math that children should work on, in terms of problems, should be guided with visual aids and shapes or drawings that would further explain some complex concepts. III. Three Examples Having the students find a simple derivative would be a good place for them to start in learning more about the world of calculus. According to Alsina and Nelsen (2006), â€Å"In calculus, one [important piece of information] is the area under the graph of a function† (pp. 16). First, they could start of with a very simple equation, like f(x) = x^2. Then, what they could do next is find the derivative. The equation would be f’ (also known as f prime) = 2x. Next, the next step would be having a derivative of 2. And then the integer would become zero, finally. So, this is just one way in which some of the rules of derivatives could be simply explained on the board with graphs and a formula instead of having to go through the rules of the derivatives, which are pretty self-explanatory once you see how it’s done. Graphs help greatly in this regard. According to Larson and Edwards (2008), â€Å"[L]ine segments give a visual perspective of the slopes of the solutions of the differential equation† (pp. 256). The second example that would be given would be more geometry than anything else, and more of an introductory calculus problem. In order to find the hypotenuse of a triangle that the kids would cut out, they would have to take the sin of the angle equal to the opposite over adjacent lengths and then solve the problem. The third project that kids could work on would be to correctly calculate the time that it would take for a fish tank to fill up by taking measurements of the speed of the water, the measurements of the tank, etc. They would then use a calculus formula in order to figure out the answer by plugging in the numbers. This could be used to fill up a fish tank and then add new fish to the tank as a class project. IV. Lesson Plan for Students (With Accommodations for Diverse Learning Styles) Lesson Plan Components for a 5th-Grade Calculus-Focused Math Class Resources. Blackboard or whiteboard, construction paper, fishtank, water, hose, scissors, pens, pencils, colored pencils, and calculus

Is it possible to find any common ground between different identities Research Proposal

Is it possible to find any common ground between different identities in Turkey via Rawls' theories - Research Proposal Example Introduction Conflict has always existed in society and it always will. It is an instance which is not directly a result or victim of any social phenomenon or occurrence, but rather a combination of factors over time. Theorists have come to believe that contributions to an engaged, politically aware form of multicultural theorizing may cast some light on political debate and public policy making. Not surprisingly, classical liberals such as Hayek (1976) insist that the contemporary liberal fixation on ‘the mirage of social justice’ leads them to ignore the way that freedom depends on a decentralized market based on private property, the overall results of which are unpredictable. Similarly, Robert Nozick (1974: 160ff) famously argued that attempts to ensure that market transactions conform to a specific pattern of holdings will involve constant interferences with individual freedom. No idealistic policy will address all of the needs of everyone, but instead will institut e the greater good for society. A utopian society is the society that accepts this fact. A nation whose people are in riotous turmoil, such as Turkey, challenges this truth; declaring human nature and human imperfections as unjust. Not only can human rights be violated, but also used to exploit or institute other agendas. John Rawls views human rights as being constructed by reasonable people living together in a society. Rawls presents a more compassionate view of human rights, one with the greatest degrees of individual liberty and equality, while maintaining these rights for all. The state should distribute everything, including benefits, equally; unless an unequal distribution would benefit the poorer classes. The work of John Rawls is absolutely central in terms of the nature of reason, equality, justice or pluralism. It inspired us to consider how his principles might actually enlighten political issues arising in contemporary liberal democratic societies. The values of a gove rning agency can contrast with the personal values of the people. In many instances, only the outcome can determine whether the decisions were the right ones. In some instances, none of the choices seem appropriate. Regardless of the size or impact of the conflict, ethical decisions challenge the best of us, and ‘the right thing to do’ may elude common logic. This paper will address cultural diversity in the Turkish society and the view of John Rawls’ view of justice as a political conception. 1.1 Multiculturalism Multiculturalism is one of the most controversial issues of social justice in liberal democracies. Government and financial entities consist of culture, environment, strategies, and traits. The level of Values are reflected in a country’s culture. The most changing attributes are culture and traits. Cultures, traits and environments deviate from time to time, but not so far as to lose their original attributes. According to Cheeseman, the followi ng standards should be implemented at all times (Cheeseman, 2010): Keep the peace and shape moral standards Promote social justice and maintain status quo Facilitate planning and orderly change Provide basis for compromise 90% Maximize individual freedom Minorities increasingly demand recognition and in some cases special rights and these demands are demands of justice. The line of

Women Issues and Prostitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Women Issues and Prostitution - Essay Example The misconceptions, which follow, are many towards the rights of women. Women indulge in prostitution are sometimes considered to be "exclusive" of this society irrespective of the fact that they are the mirrors of those dilemmas which we ignore or which we feel shame to admit to ourselves. Society should consider and face this dilemma in the form of "prostitution". We will discuss some of the most common problems faced by the women of Canada today. Because of the pervasive and deeply rooted attitudes toward the legitimacy of sexual coercion in our society, our conceptions of normal male and female derive from taking coerced sexuality as the natural standard. And given that this is true, it is scarcely surprising that it should be considered to be normal for men not to like women at least to some extent, since they must perceive women as being misers and hoarders of a commodity they are led to believe they desperately desire and need. Nor is it surprising that they should identify themselves as 'true men' in accordance with the degree to which they are aggressive and dominant. Aggressive and dominant men get what they want; it is merely the forms of aggressiveness and dominance which vary, and is only when the forms resorted to involve the use or threat of violence that we are prepared to call it 'rape' and to punish those who commit it. (Schlesinger, 1977) Let us consider some of the cases of women in this aspect. One woman in this study who complained of rape, a young woman classified as 'idle,' and who was 'known as' a frequenter of the old Yorkville area of Toronto, disagreed about the standard. She felt that the man 'had gone too far,' whereas his reply was 'that he had used no more force than is usual for males during the preliminaries.' In another case, again involving a young woman, the woman rather sagely remarked that 'usually guys stop when you tell them to. This one didn't.' It is significant too that in both of these cases the men were middle-class, one a businessman and the other a semi-professional, and the women involved failed to conform to the stereotyped image of the 'real victim.' If the cases had come to trial, they are not the sort of men likely to have been judged to have resorted to unacceptable tactics, or who would be sent to jail for what they did because the women involved were not 'real victims.' These men, in common with most accused rapists, did not see anything wrong in what they had done. What the victim experienced as rape, they believed to be seduction. However, it is unbelievable that virtually none of these offenders believed that they were doing anything wrong; they did not see themselves as acting any differently from other men in society, and did not see, and resisted seeing, themselves as men who had broken the law. Almost all of them either saw, or went to quite incredible lengths to see, their behavior as 'normal' and acceptable. The extreme case simply believes everything he does in relation to women is acceptable, and after that there are subtler shadings in

Contextual design Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Contextual design - Coursework Example In natural environment customer and interviewer works together. Master/apprentice model has strong role of experience and habit that molds the action, if some things is based on experience there may some reason behind, to minimize effect of habit giving training to others plays a vital as the trainer explains the reasons of doing certain actions. The events and stories attached to a task also shared be master or trainer hence takes a learner to the event whose conclusions and teachings could help an individual in future works that he / she carries himself. Design team may learn same way through the experience of the customers by interviewing them. In experience they share important details and mistakes which become time saving and helpful information. This kind of work is based on observing ongoing working models rather rely on conceptual ideas. The designer not only learns to start like apprenticeship but also apply knowledge to integrate it with technology and take into account other people and concerned areas that comes under his domain. Through four principle guide, the apprenticeship model can be modified to meet design's team need. These are context, partnership, interpretation and focus. Context gives ongoing experience and concrete data.

The Perfect eProduct Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Perfect eProduct - Essay Example However, it is without question that with this drastic increase in available technology, the price of these devices have risen precipitously. Along with this price increase, so too as the consumption habits that the consumers display. Rather than changing a mobile device several times throughout the year, individuals are now encouraged, by simple force of economics, to retain their device longer, protect it, and seek to repair it in the off chance that it is somehow damaged. It is further estimated by experts that the industry responsible for the repair of mobile devices engenders an economy that is worth tens of millions of dollars annually. Whereas the repair of current mobile devices takes many shapes and forms, the most common repair that is engaged is repair of chipped, broken, or cracked glass screens. Whereas formerly mobile devices were put together with plastic LCD panels, the trend towards touch-screen devices has meant that more and more of these devices are now made with glass. As such, the product which will be promoted within this analysis for sale within the online market, will provide the consumer with an alternative to the exhorbitantly expensive screen replacements that can cost as much as 30% of the original phone’s cost. As such, the product which will herein be discussed and analyzed is a glass gel that has already been used in the automotive industry for decades which helps to seal and repair cracks, chips, or other imperfections on a glass surface. As such, the following section will engage the reader with a discussion and analysis of some of the key benefits that this particular product has to offer with regards to consumer utility and the ability of being sold online. The first of these is with regards the ultimate lightweight nature of the product itself. Comprising less than one fluid ounce, this particular product easily the ships; with little to no cost to the end consumer. Furthermore, it should also be understood that this particular product offers a tangential benefit of being a low-cost alternative the increasingly pricey cost of mobile phone screen repair; which was noted previously within this brief analysis (Wolf, 2012). As such, the gamble the individual consumer with regards to integrating person is your products are less than it would be if the product or service was closer in price to the alternative that face. A tertiary benefit is with regards to the fact that the existing supply of this glass gelling compound can easily be purchased in a litany of auto repair supply centers and repackaged at a significant markup (Moran, 2013). Fourthly, the high profit margin that could be denoted from this particular approach is clear and evident. Finally, it must be understood that there is ultimately no cost of research and development regards as the innovations are in place and the product provider is merely repackaging and reselling this product to the consumer for use in a different application that it was originally intended. Accordingly, the utility that can be gained from all of this, for the producer/seller, is that all of these facts help to directly translate to an increased level of money that can be saved on research and development, shipping costs, purchase of raw material in bulk, simplicity of product marketing, and a great many other

Use of Ace Inhibitors for Treatment of Hypertension Essay Example for Free

Use of Ace Inhibitors for Treatment of Hypertension Essay The prevalence of hypertension globally has sparked much research on medications and ways to cure it. Although there are varieties of medications available in the market to control hypertension, there are still none that can actually cure it. Until the time a drug to cure hypertension emerges, hypertension will be controlled by the use of antihypertensive drugs. Among the few well known classes of antihypertensive drugs is a group of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors are a fairly recent addition to the antihypertensive drug class and have been widely used since then due to its many potential benefits. ACE inhibitors are indicated for many conditions which include hypertension, prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disorders, and prevention of nephropathy in diabetes mellitus. When used in hypertension, it is done so in combination with diuretics with fairly good results. (Merck, 2003)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The use of ACE inhibitors is especially useful for congestive heart failure patients. Therefore, it is indicated in cases where hypertension exists in correlation with congestive heart failure. There has been a significant decrease in the overall morbidity and mortality rates of patients suffering from both the conditions when using ACE inhibitors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The mode of action of these drugs is many fold, and for that reason very effective in the treatment of hypertension. For instance, it acts on the vascular system to reduce vascular pressure, which allows for less arterial pressure, combined with more venous capacity, thus immediately reducing the blood pressure. Alongside, it increases cardiac output and cardiac index and stroke volume. The main function of the ACE inhibitors, however, is the inhibition of the ACE enzyme, which is responsible for increased vascular pressure, ventricular remodeling, production of aldosterone and vasopressin respectively. (Katzung, 2004)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Such drugs however, require careful dosage regimes based on extensive studying of the case, as there are many side effects associated with these drugs. The most common of these include hypotension, due to the vasodilator effect of the drugs.(Merck, 2003)   The second most common problem is the development of persistent cough in such patients, which leads to reduction in patient compliance. The bid and tid dosage regimes also reduce the patients’ compliance. Due to its renal effects, ACE inhibitors must be used carefully in cases where damage to the kidney is expected or the kidneys are functionally impaired. For example, in patients with renal artery stenosis, the use of these drugs can lead to renal impairment. The prevention of release of aldosterone caused by these drugs impairs excretion of potassium in the body, which can lead to hyperkalemia. Increased levels can also lead to the development of angioedema, which can be life threatening. ACE inhibitors are also contraindicated in patients who are pregnant as it is teratogenic in nature. (Kaplan and Rose, 2007)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Due to the mode of activity of these drugs, the ACE inhibitors become contraindicated in cases of history of angioedemas or renal artery stenosis, compromised renal functioning capacities, aortic valve stenosis and in patients suffering from hypovolumia. (Klabunde, 2007)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many drugs now belong to this category, however, the paper will discuss three of these, captopril, enalapril and lisinopril.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Captopril main mode of action lies in the suppression of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. By inhibiting the ACE inhibitor, angiotensin I is prevented from converting into angiotensin II.   Captopril enjoys universal attention due to the fact that it is the first ACE inhibitor introduced. Its mode of action and its effect were considered a breakthrough at the time of its conception. Its action is two fold. Firstly, it helps in dilating the vessels, thereby helping reduce blood pressure. Secondly, it has shown very good performance in the cases of myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure. And thirdly, it has shown good results in the prevention of diabetic nephropathy. (www.rxlist.com)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is very little difference in the working of all the ACE drugs, however, captopril differs in this respect due to its shorter duration of action and increased chances of adverse effects.   This intensity of side effects potentiated further research, the result of which was the introduction of enalapril in the market, and still further drugs subsequently. Regardless of the drug, the ACE inhibitors generally take several weeks of administration to give full effectiveness and results. When used with thiazide diuretics, the results achieved are even more.(Merck, 2003)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Captopril is administered one hour before meals to achieve maximum peak volume concentration, which is reached within an hour of ingestion of drug. Initial dosage may be as low as 25 mg bid or tid, and gradually can be increased to double dose bid or tid. The addition of thiazide diuretics is usually carried out when using captopril alone at 50 mg alone does not sufficiently control blood pressure.(Katzung, 2004) This range can be increased to 150 mg per day, provided the use of a thiazide diuretic is also carried out. The administration of drug results in the lowering of blood pressure within one hour. Renal blood flow is increased; however, the GFR remains unchanged. When used with digitalis, captopril shows good efficacy in the treatment of congestive heart failure. Its use has been very favorable in patients who had previously suffered from myocardial infarction, or those with left ventricular dysfunction. In case of LVD and CHF or MI, the usual starting dose is 50 mg target dose. (Kaplan and Rose, 2007)   Ã‚  Ã‚     Captopril has shown to increase the risk of developing neutropenia and agranulocytosis and therefore, full blood picture is mandatory for patients using captopril for a prolonged period. Also, since mode of elimination from the body is through the kidneys, the use of captopril becomes contraindicated or at least under observation in cases of renal impairment or dysfunction. (Katzung, 2004)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Enalapril is the second drug introduced in the ACE inhibitor series. The main reason for its production was to eliminate the problems seen with the use of captopril. As in captopril, the drug utilizes the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Production of enalapril involved changing the molecular constitution of captopril, and therefore, the final result was the first dicarboxylate- containing ACE inhibitor, or enalaprilat. However, this modification limited the use of this drug as intravenous injection only. Further modifications in this structure led to the oral form by the name enalapril. (www.rxlist.com)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Enalapril works by converting itself through hydrolysis into enalaprilat in the body. Enalaprilat then inhibits the ACE enzyme. The peak serum levels are reached within an hour of administration of the drug. As opposed to captopril, enalapril absorption is independent of gastric contents; rather it is dependant on the urinary recovery. In hypertensive patients, the dosage of enalapril results in both supine and standing but not orthostatic hypotension. This effect is not seen in case of captopril. The antihypertensive activity becomes visible within one hour of administration of the drug. This effect then remains for around 24 hours. Similar to captopril, enalapril shows improved hypertensive control when administered with a thiazide diuretic. it is also indicated for cases suffering from heart failure, and asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction. (Kaplan and Rose, 2007)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unlike captopril, which can be administered simultaneously with a preceding diuretic, enalapril can only be started after cessation of the diuretic after two to three days. This is essential to minimize the risk of developing hypotension. If this is not possible a test dose of 2.5 mg is given for at least two hours under observation, and the drug administered accordingly. The usual dosage regime may vary from 10 to 40 mg per day, and that is if the patient is not on a diuretic. Dose adjustment becomes necessary for patients who have impaired renal function, which may require reduction of the dose to almost half of the average 5 mg. this dosage is amenable to changes based on the blood pressure response seen. (www.rxlist.com)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Enalapril is highly favored over captopril as it has lesser side effects than its predecessor. It has a well toleration response, and the adverse effects are very mild in nature. Patients may complain of fatigue, asthenia, diarrhea and nausea, headache and dizziness, cough and skin rash. These symptoms can be present with varying degrees according to the reason why the drug is being administered. For example in heart cases, it can also lead to syncope symptoms and some differences in the special sensory perceptions. Angioedema is perhaps the most serious side effect of enalapril, with severity seen more in blacks than in non-black populations. This can be very fatal should laryngeal angioedema ensue. Initial doses can lead to fall of blood pressure and hypotension, which must be monitored very closely. Hyperkalemia, increase in blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinin levels, and decrease in hematocrit and hemoglobin can also be seen. Liver enzymes can also become elevated. (Merck manual, 2003)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The effects of enalapril were much improved and effective with lesser side effects when compared to captopril, however, the speed of effect was still high in the case of captopril. The third drug to get introduced in the series of ACE inhibitors became lisinopril. The drug was important as it was the first hydrophilic ACE inhibitor introduces, with longer half life and penetration in the tissue. The drug remains the same even after excretion from the body, and is indicated for all the conditions mentioned above for which ACE inhibitors are introduced. While captopril and enalapril were made for bid and tid dosages, lisinopril, due to its longer half life, is generally administered once a day, helping aid patient compliance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The mode of action is similar to its sister drugs, that is the drug acts by inhibiting the ACE enzyme. The peak serum concentration of this drug however, is reached after 7 hours, compared to one hour of both captopril and enalapril. When used for hypertension, it results in the reduction of both standing and supine hypertension, with â€Å"no compensatory tachycardia†(Rx list, 2007)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The dosage of lisinopril is given according to the drug history of the patient. Patients with no use of diuretics are given 10 mg per day as initial dose. This can be increased from 20 to 40 mg as the case may need. In diuretic using patients, the protocol for the administration of lisinopril is the same as for enalapril. The diuretic is stopped two to three days prior to the administration of lisinopril, and observed for signs of hypotension. Dosage is then adjusted according to the body response of the patient. This drug should not be given along with any potassium supplements as it can lead to hyperkalemia. Renal status similarly, addresses the dosage of the drug, with 10 mg as standard for normal kidney function, 5 mg for moderate to severe renal impairment, and 2.5 mg or so for dialysis patients after proper observation and blood pressure response. (Klabubde, 2007)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Side effects of lisinopril are not so different from the side effects seen in the case of enalapril and captopril. However, cough becomes the primary side effect of this drug along with fatigue and asthenia etc. In all cases of ACE inhibitors, the side effects must be monitored closely and managed accordingly should the need arise. (ACE Inhibitors, 2004)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, the introduction of ACE inhibitors has been a welcome addition in the antihypertensive drug family and is now used widely due to its excellent prognosis in patients with concurrent heart conditions. Its use with thiazide diuretics has been widely documented and further studies will help in the introduction of much improved brands of ACE inhibitors. References ACE inhibitor drugs. Site last accessed on August 5, 2007 from www.rxlist.com ACE inhibitors, 2004. Site last accessed on August 5, 2007 from http://www.chfpatients.com/ace_old.htm Norman A Kaplan and Burton D Rose, 2007. ACE inhibitors in the Treatment of Hypertension. Site last accessed on August 5, 2007 from http://patients.uptodate.com/topic.asp?file=hyperten/10107#1 Richard E. Klabunde, 2007. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors. Site last accessed on August 5, 2007 from http://cvpharmacology.com/vasodilator/ACE.htm Bertram G. Katzung, 2004. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, ninth edition. The Merck Manual of Medical Information. Second Home Edition. Section III, Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders.

Protein Determination Lab Report

Protein Determination Lab Report Introduction Within protein biochemistry, analytical procedures and experiments have been designed to determine accurate measures of the protein concentration in a sample. A variety of protein assays are being and have been developed to be used in laboratories to examine a solution and to quantify protein from a biological specimen. For certain concentrations, protein assays such as the Bradford and the Lowry method will have advantages and disadvantages, for instance a higher cost but the results have a greater accuracy and are produced expeditiously (Becker, Caldwell and Zachgo, 2011). Protein assays are essential to determine if proteinuria is a result of glomerular or tubular manifestation, indicating serious health complications. The protein albumin is the most abundant in urine compared to that of other proteins, and therefore is the standard most common protein measured (Vogel, 2008). For decades, protein quantification has been an important laboratory technique that extracts, purifies, characterises and analyses protein concentrations throughout human biology, from enzymatic activity to clinical testing of urine samples. In many parts of the world, such as Australasia in New Zealand, routine checks are available to measure albumin levels in the urine to aid in the diagnosis of renal disease (Martin, 2011). Diagnosing disease through protein quantification is a long-lasting technique, ancient experts would try to identify albumin in the urine through a technique known as the foam-test, which is similarly still carried out today to detect glomerular disease. For this reason, protein quantification is a crucial diagnostic tool in early detection of disease, classification of disease and assessment of prognosis (Pisitkun, Johnstone and Knepper, 2006). Blood plasma is comprised of a combination of proteins to aid in various factors including the maintenance of blood plasma volume and/or a protein transporter. Of the blood plasma, albumin makes up 60% of plasma protein, and is the most copious protein to be measured in the plasma (Higgins, 2005). In healthy patients, the albumin concentration in the urine should be exceptionally low, between 20ug/ml and 30ug/ml are considered a normal level. However, any reading above 30ug/ml could be an indication that the person could have microalbuminuria or macro-albuminuria which increases the risk of a range of health conditions (Hasanato, 2016). To determine abnormal concentrations of albumin in the urine requires an accurate screening process, this is an essential diagnostic tool for the early detection of progressive kidney disease and a cardiovascular risk marker. The initial assessment uses proteinuria uranalysis on patients showing symptoms of chronic kidney disease (CKD). For instance, a clear indication that a patient with diabetes mellitus could develop Diabetic nephropathy is through an increase in the albumin in the urine. Non-diabetic patients that develop a protein concentration in the micro-albuminuria region of above 30ug/ml are still at risk of CKD progression and higher CVD mortality risk. (Carter et al., 2006) Proteinuria can affect people with or without diabetes, male or female but can progressively worsen with age. (Fraser et al., 2017) Several sources, including the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation study, found a correlation between abnormal albumin levels detected in a dipstick test and Cardiovascul ar diseases such as hypertension and strokes. A recent study found that from 48,000 participants, the presence of microalbuminuria was shown to increase stroke risk by up to 90% than that of normoalbuminuric individuals (Delles and Currie, 2013). For the protein determination laboratory experiment, the aim of the albumin assay was to determine the absorbance value of the 5 patient urine samples with the high and normal controls. To achieve the aim, three objectives were implemented; the first step was to create an accurate curve of albumin which aided in the second and third objective; to determine the quantity of proteinuria in each sample, followed by a diagnosis of the patients from the urine samples. Methodology Using the Bradford Assay procedure, 8 standards are generated with the protein concentration from 0ul in standard 0, 25ul, 50ul, 75ul, 100ul, 250ul, 500ul and 1000ul in standard 7, Adding water to labelled microtubules with Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) 1mg/ml (1ug/ul). Duplicates of 100ul of each solution are then added to test tubes with 5ml of Bradford regent and incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes before being recorded at 595nm in the spectrometer. These values are recorded into excel, a calibration graph is formed through calculating the average, producing the R2 value. The calibration graph calculates the M value in y=mx; this is used to determine the protein concentrations of each sample. After the duplicated samples have been left for 10 minutes containing 100ul of each patients sample and 5ml of Bradford regent, these samples are read at 595nm in the spectrometer giving the Y absorbance values through light absorbance. In excel, 6 anomalies were removed from each data set before being analysed, averaged and the standard deviation being calculated. Using the average and x=m/y equation, a clustered column bar chart was formed showing the quantification of albumin protein concentration showing the +/- standard deviation. Results The protein albumin in the urine is an essential marker for the diagnosis and prognosis of certain diseases. Urine tests, which contain high levels of albumin are usually the first steps in determining illness and disease. Certain symptoms that a patient shows can be a clear indication that albumin levels are high. Testing of these albumin levels can then significantly help determine illness. It is paramount for this reason to quantify albumin protein concentrations in samples to aid in the prevention of morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. In this study, five patient samples were tested for albumin against a high controlled and normal controlled sample to show the importance of albumin in urine. Upon the results, shown in figure 1 and 2 a diagnosis could be made for the individuals. To critically analyse the calibration graph in figure 1, the R2 trend line label must have a value of >0.95 to indicate a good fit and a linear line for the data, the R2 label has a value of 0.99031 which follows this trend. It can be seen from the calibration graph has a linear relationship; as the concentration of albumin doubles, the absorbance @ 595nm also doubles. In figure 2, the normal controlled and high controlled sample give a clear indication of how healthy the albumin concentrations are that are found in each patient sample. Although the high controlled sample has an albumin concentration of over 300ug/ml representing macro-albuminuria, patient 1 and patient 4 have similar abnormal protein levels in the serum showing microalbuminuria. Furthermore, patient 2 and patient 5 are also classed as having microalbuminuria as the concentrations are over 30ug/ml, however the levels are not extreme, and are not an indication of chronic kidney disease. Patient 3 has a similar concentration to the normal controlled sample; the patients kidneys have virtually no protein and are classed as healthy. Discussion In a healthy urine sample, normal protein albumin concentrations are between 20ug/ml and 30ug/ml, this can be seen in Figure 2 with the Normal control having a value around 30 and for patient 3. However, protein levels from 30ug/ml to 300ug/ml are considered microalbuminuria; patient 1, 2, 4 and 5. The High Control Protein has a value in the 340 regions, this is known as macro albuminuria (Hasanato, 2016). Patient 1 35-year-old female. Albumin protein concentration is approximately 210ug/ml, abnormal level of protein is extremely higher than the normal range and can indicate preeclampsia. Women who experience preeclampsia during their pregnancy are more likely to experience complication than those with normal levels of protein, headaches are a clear indicator that the lady is showing signs of preeclampsia (Hawkins et al., 2015). It is essential that her blood pressure is monitored to prevent hypertension and sent for various blood tests to observe her kidney and liver function (NHS 2). Patient 2 50-year-old male. Albumin protein concentration is around 80ug/ml which is classed as microalbuminuria. Body mass index, waist circumference and high levels of protein in urine are linked with the formation of kidney stones (Garimella et al., 2015). The symptoms that patient 2 is experiencing suggest that he is suffering from a large kidney stone. Highly recommended that he is sent for blood and urine tests to check for infection (NHS 1). Patient 3 40-year-old female. Albumin Protein concentration is roughly 25ug/ml which indicates very little protein in her urine, concentration classed as normal as similar value to the Normal Control protein. Patient 4 23-year-old female. Albumin Protein concentration is in the region of 275ug/ml, classed as very high and could indicate albuminuria. Early diagnosis could prevent the patient from experiencing hypertension, type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease (Yadav et al., 2016). The symptoms that the patient is experiencing could indicate a Urinary Tract Infection, there is a strong correlation in many studies that demonstrations how a UTI can impact the glomerular involvement increasing the levels of albumin in the urine (Gonzà ¡lez Rodrà ­guez et al., 2009). Patient 5 70-year-old. Albumin protein concentration boarding 60ug/ml which isnt significantly higher the normal range but still classed as micro-albuminuria. Patient showing signs of still recovering from influenza, immune system is weakened due to age and can take longer to recover. Renal function decline can occur with age and within the elderly generation, which could indicate the abnormal levels of albumin in his urine (Funk et al., 2016). Should be monitored regularly, a review of his medication that may cause a decline in his renal function and put on antibiotics if symptoms of flu continue. References Becker, J., Caldwell, G. and Zachgo, E. (2011). Biotechnology. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic Press, p.119. Carter, J., Tomson, C., Stevens, P. and Lamb, E. (2006). Does urinary tract infection cause proteinuria or microalbuminuria? A systematic review. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 21(11), pp.3031-3037. Available: https://academic.oup.com/ndt/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ndt/gfl373. Last accessed: 12th March 2017. Delles, C. and Currie, G. (2013). Proteinuria and its relation to cardiovascular disease. International Journal of Nephrology and Renovascular Disease, p.13. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Delles%2C+C.+and+Currie%2C+G.+(2013). Last Accessed: 14th March 2017. Fraser, S., Roderick, P., McIntyre, N., Harris, S., McIntyre, C., Fluck, R. and Taal, M. (2017). Assessment of Proteinuria in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease Stage 3: Albuminuria and Non-Albumin Proteinuria. Available: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0098261. Last accessed: 12th March 2017. Funk, I., Seibert, E., Markau, S. and Girndt, M. (2016). Clinical Course of Acute Kidney Injury in Elderly Individuals Above 80 Years. Kidney and Blood Pressure Research, 41(6), pp.947-955. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Funk%2C+I.%2C+Seibert%2C+E.%2C+Markau%2C+S.+and+Girndt%2C+M.+(2016). Last accessed: 12th March 2017. Garimella, P., Biggs, M., Katz, R., Ix, J., Bennett, M., Devarajan, P., Kestenbaum, B., Siscovick, D., Jensen, M., Shlipak, M., Chaves, P. and Sarnak, M. (2015). Urinary uromodulin, kidney function, and cardiovascular disease in elderly adults. Kidney International, 88(5), pp.1126-1134. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26154925. Last accessed: 15th March 2017. Gonzà ¡lez Rodrà ­guez, J., Canalejo, D., Martà ­n Govante, J., Garcà ­a de Guadiana, L., Rex, C., Gonzà ¡lez Morales, M. and Cayuela, A. (2009). Proteinuria in urinary infection and acute originals pyelonephritis in paediatric patients: can it replace scintigraphic studies in diagnostic localisation? Nefrologà ­a, 29(2), pp.163-169. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Gonz%C3%A1lez+Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+J.%2C+Canalejo%2C+D.%2C+Mart%C3%ADn+Govante%2C+J.%2C+Garc%C3%ADa+de+Guadiana%2C+L.%2C+Rex%2C+C.%2C+Gonz%C3%A1lez+Morales%2C+M.+and+Cayuela%2C+A.+(2009). Last accessed: 13th March 2017. Hasanato, R. (2016). Diagnostic efficacy of random albumin creatinine ratio for detection of micro and macro-albuminuria in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Saudi Medical Journal, 37(3), pp.268-273. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26905348. Last accessed: 15th March 2017. Hawkins, M., Braun, B., Marcus, B., Stanek, E., Markenson, G. and Chasan-Taber, L. (2015). The impact of an exercise intervention on C reactive protein during pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 15(1). Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26104503. Last accessed: 12th March 2017. Higgins, C. (2005). Understanding laboratory investigations. 1st ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, p.159. Martin, H. (2011). Laboratory Measurement of Urine Albumin and Urine Total Protein in Screening for Proteinuria in Chronic Kidney Disease. Clin Biochem Rev., 32(2), pp.97-102. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Martin%2C+H.+(2011).+Laboratory+Measurement+of+Urine+Albumin+and+Urine+Total+Protein+in+Screening+for+Proteinuria+in+Chronic+Kidney+Disease. Last accessed: 13th March 2017. NHS 1. (). Diagnosing Kidney Stones. Available: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Kidney-stones/Pages/Diagnosis.aspx. Last accessed 12th March 2017. NHS 2. Pre -eclampsia Treatment. Available: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Pre-eclampsia/Pages/Treatment.aspx. Last accessed 15/03/2017. Oda, E. (2014). Overweight and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein are weakly associated with kidney stone formation in Japanese men. International Journal of Urology, 21(10), pp.1005-1011. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Oda%2C+E.+(2014).+Overweight+and+high-sensitivity+C-reactive+protein+are+weakly+associated+with+kidney+stone+formation+in+Japanese+men.+International+Journal+of+Urology%2C. Last accessed: 14th March 2017. Pisitkun, T., Johnstone, R. and Knepper, M. (2006). Discovery of Urinary Biomarkers. Molecular Cellular Proteomics, 5(10), pp.1760-1771. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Pisitkun%2C+T.%2C+Johnstone%2C+R.+and+Knepper%2C+M.+(2006).+Discovery+of+Urinary+Biomarkers.+Molecular+%26+Cellular+Proteomics. Last accessed: 12th March 2017. Yadav, D., Kang, D., Koh, S., Kim, J. and Ahn, S. (2016). Association between Urine Albumin-to-Creatinine Ratio within the Normal Range and Incident Hypertension in Men and Women. Yonsei Medical Journal, 57(6), p.1454. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27593874. Last accessed: 15th March 2017. Vogel, H. (2008). Drug Discovery and Evaluation. 1st ed. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, p.476.